(London 1997), S. 26-32
The Dead as a Guest at Table?
Continuity and Change in the Egyptian Cult of the Dead
Barbara Borg
I n his e p i c p o e m Punica (13.475) Silius Italicus describes t h e visit o f S c i p i o A f r i c a n u s t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d . T h e r e S c i p i o m e e t s t h e g h o s t o f A p p i u s C l a u d i u s , w h o w a s fatally w o u n d e d n e a r C a p u a . A p p i u s l a m e n t s that h e c o u l d n o t f i n d p e a c e b e c a u s e his f r i e n d s h a d f a i l e d t o c r e m a t e a n d b u r y his b o d y . S c i p i o w i s h e s t o d o h i m this f a v o u r b u t claims that h e d o e s n o t k n o w a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h rites it s h o u l d b e d o n e , so h e lists a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t practices: ' A l l o v e r t h e w o r l d t h e p r a c t i c e is d i f f e r e n t i n this m a t t e r , a n d u n l i k e n e s s o f o p i n i o n p r o d u c e s v a r i o u s w a y s o f b u r y i n g t h e d e a d a n d d i s p o s i n g o f their ashes. I n t h e l a n d o f S p a i n , w e are t o l d (it is an a n c i e n t c u s t o m ) t h e b o d i e s o f t h e d e a d are d e v o u r e d b y l o a t h l y v u l t u r e s . W h e n a k i n g d i e s i n H y r c a n i a , it is t h e r u l e t o let dogs h a v e access t o t h e corpse. T h e E g y p t i a n s e n c l o s e t h e i r d e a d , s t a n d i n g i n a n u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n , i n a c o f f i n o f stone, a n d w o r s h i p it;
a n d t h e y a d m i t a b l o o d l e s s spectre t o t h e i r banquets.'1
T h e t e x t g o e s o n l i k e this b u t w e w i l l stop h e r e b e c a u s e o u r interest t o d a y is d i r e c t e d at t h e E g y p t i a n practice.
W e f i n d c o n f i r m a t i o n f o r this i n L u c i a n ' s De luctu (21): ' U p t o that p o i n t , t h e w a n i n g , t h e s a m e s t u p i d c u s t o m prevails e v e r y w h e r e ; b u t i n w h a t f o l l o w s , t h e b u r i a l , t h e y h a v e a p p o r t i o n e d o u t a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , n a t i o n b y n a t i o n , t h e different m o d e s . T h e G r e e k b u r n s , t h e P e r s i a n b u r i e s , t h e I n d i a n encases i n glass, t h e S c y t h i a n eats, t h e E g y p t i a n salts. A n d t h e latter — I h a v e s e e n w h e r e o f I s p e a k — after d r y i n g t h e d e a d m a n m a k e s h i m his guest at table!'2
T h e s e reports b y t w o a u t h o r s o f t h e first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s AD s t r i k e a m o d e r n r e a d e r as b e i n g f a i r l y strange. O n e w o u l d e x p e c t t h e m t o h a v e i n s t a n t a n e
o u s l y p r o v o k e d scientific curiosity. Surprisingly, this is n o t t h e case, a n d these passages h a v e a r o u s e d little o r n o interest. It is, h o w e v e r , n o t t h e p l a c e h e r e t o e x a m i n e t h e r e a s o n s f o r this a w k w a r d s i l e n c e w i t h i n t h e a c a d e m i c c o m m u n i t y .3
First o f all, o n e s h o u l d n o t i c e that t h e r e c a n b e little d o u b t as t o t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s . T e l e s , D i o d o r u s , C i c e r o a n d S e x t u s E m p i r i c u s c o n f i r m that t h e E g y p t i a n s k e p t t h e m u m m i e s o f t h e i r relatives at h o m e .4 T o b e sure, s o m e o f t h e t e x t s s h o w g r e a t similarity a n d t h e r e f o r e m a y d e p e n d o n e a c h o t h e r o r o n still a n o t h e r c o m m o n s o u r c e .5B u t at least t w o a u t h o r s k n e w E g y p t p e r s o n a l l y . D i o d o r u s v i s i t e d A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g t h e 180th O l y m p i a d (60—56 BC) — m o r e o v e r , R . M e r k e l b a c h r e c e n d y c o n f i r m e d t h e general reliability o f paragraphs I 9 1 - 9 3 b y c o m p a r i n g D i o d o r u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e j u d g e m e n t - c e r e m o n i a l w i t h e v i d e n c e from t h e p a p y r i6 - w h i l e L u c i a n s p e n t
several years i n E g y p t , w h e r e h e h e l d a h i g h p o s i t i o n i n t h e o f f i c e o f t h e p r e f e c t o f E g y p t . F o r t h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g p a r t i n t h e passage q u o t e d a b o v e , t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f m u m m i e s at b a n q u e t s , h e e v e n stresses his t e s t i m o n y as a n eyewitness.
I n s o m e o f t h e texts t h e E g y p t i a n s a n d their strange h a b i t s c l e a r l y f u n c t i o n as ' t h e o t h e r ' o f G r e e k s o r R o m a n s .7N e v e r t h e l e s s , this d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e that t h e habits u s e d i n this w a y w e r e s i m p l y i n v e n t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e . I n t h e case o f E g y p t , particularly, t h e r e e x i s t e d e n o u g h b i z a r r e practices t o serve these n e e d s , a n d this applies n o t o n l y t o m u m m i f i c a t i o n itself. A n i m a l w o r s h i p , f o r e x a m p l e , p r o v e d t o b e a m a j o r a r g u m e n t i n t h e m o s t l y u n f a v o u r a b l e c o n c e p t i o n s o f E g y p t , as p r o p a g a t e d b y n o n - E g y p t i a n a u t h o r s . H o w e v e r , it w a s also a n actual a n d w i d e s p r e a d p r a c t i c e i n G r a e c o - R o m a n E g y p t i a n p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n .8
W e f i n d f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e i n C h r i s t i a n texts w h i c h relate that e v e n t h e C o p t i c C h r i s t i a n s u s e d t o k e e p t h e p r e s e r v e d a n d a d o r n e d b o d i e s o f v e n e r a t e d p e r s o n s , p r e d o m i n a n t l y m a r t y r s , a b o v e g r o u n d . A c c o r d i n g t o A t h a n a s i u s t h i s c u s t o m d r o v e St A n t h o n y i n t o t h e desert t o await his d e a t h i n solitude.9 It w a s this c u s t o m a g a i n ( a n d n o t m u m m i f i c a t i o n itself) that p r o v o k e d t h e c e n s u r e o f b i s h o p s a n d o t h e r h i g h e r c l e r g y — a n i d l e censure, as it t u r n e d o u t , as is s h o w n n o t least b y t h e display a n d w o r s h i p o f relics u p t o t h e present day. It c a n h a r d l y b e i m a g i n e d that t h e C o p t s ' i n v e n t e d ' t h e h a b i t t h e m s e l v e s , b u t it is plausible t o p r e s u m e that t h e y a d o p t e d it from t h e i r p a g a n predecessors.1 0
S u p p o r t f o r o u r h y p o t h e s i s c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e m u m m i e s t h e m s e l v e s : F l i n d e r s P e t r i e r e p o r t s t h a t several o f t h e m u m m i e s h e excavated at H a w a r a ' h a d b e e n m u c h i n j u r e d b y e x p o s u r e d u r i n g a l o n g p e r i o d b e f o r e b u r i a l ' . T h e ' m u m m i e s h a d o f t e n b e e n k n o c k e d a b o u t , t h e s t u c c o c h i p p e d off.' T h e y w e r e 'dirtied, fly- m a r k e d , c a k e d w i t h dust w h i c h was b o u n d o n b y rain'.
O n t h e footcases o f t h e m u m m i e s ' t h e w r a p p i n g h a d b e e n u s e d b y c h i l d r e n , w h o s c r i b b l e d caricatures u p o n it.' P e t r i e already c o n n e c t e d his o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n that t h e d e a d w e r e k e p t i n t h e h o u s e s o f t h e i r relatives a n d also a s s u m e d a d o m e s t i c c u l t f o r t h e m .1 1
T h e passage i n H e r o d o t u s w h i c h P e t r i e a n d others s u c c e e d i n g h i m d r e w u p o n c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , serve as p r o o f . H e r o d o t u s reports (2.78) that at b a n q u e t s p e o p l e i n E g y p t u s e d t o s h o w a r o u n d a w e l l - m a d e a n d n i c e l y p a i n t e d veKpov £ u \ i v o v t o r e m i n d t h e participants o f t h e t r a n s i t o r i n e s s o f l i f e a n d t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m t o e n j o y t h e advantages o f t h e p r e s e n t . T h e r e are t w o m a i n reasons w h y this c a n n o t p o s s i b l y have a n y t h i n g t o d o
w i t h "the c u s t o m w e are c o n s i d e r i n g here. First o f all, it appears h i g h l y u n l i k e l y that veicpov ^vXivov c o u l d ever b e translated as m u m m y . T h e expression m u s t refer t o s o m e sort o f w o o d e n f i g u r e o f a d e a d p e r s o n o r e v e n o f d e a t h i t s e l f - o n e t o t w o ells l o n g , a c c o r d i n g t o H e r o d o t u s . It m a y w e l l b e a w o o d e n s k e l e t o n , as is i n d i c a t e d b y b a n q u e t e q u i p m e n t w i t h representations o f s k e l e t o n s .1 2 S e c o n d l y , t h e sense o f t h e p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d b y H e r o d o t u s is c o n t r a r y t o t h e w h o l e m e a n i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m u m m y , especially o n e o f a relative.1 3 T h e m u m m y was a s y m b o l o f a n d guarantor n o t f o r d e a t h b u t f o r life, e v e n t h o u g h f o r a n o t h e r - w o r l d l y o n e .
L o r e l e i C o r c o r a n r e c e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o a narrative b y X e n o p h o n o f E p h e s o s .1 4 H e tells t h e s t o r y o f a L a k e d a i m o n i a n fisherman n a m e d A i g i a l e u s w h o p r e s e r v e d t h e d e a d b o d y o f his w i f e ' i n a n E g y p t i a n w a y ' t o h a v e h e r a r o u n d a little l o n g e r , t o talk t o her, eat a n d sleep w i t h h e r a n d so o n . C o r c o r a n suggests that t h e E g y p t i a n c u s t o m o f k e e p i n g t h e m u m m i e s o f relatives at h o m e o r i g i n a t e d i n a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e deceased. B u t is this p r o b a b l e ? First, t h e c o n t e x t i n d i c a t e s that t h e b o d y w a s n o t w r a p p e d i n l i n e n , as all t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y E g y p t i a n m u m m i e s w e r e , b u t t h a t t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o f t h e d e c e a s e d w a s still visible, so that A b r o k o m e s c o u l d , f o r e x a m p l e , recognise t h e o l d a g e o f T h e l x i o n e . S e c o n d l y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s o m e w h a t g r o t e s q u e s t o r y b y X e n o p h o n , t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e w o m a n ' s b o d y w a s b y n o m e a n s r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d b u t w a s t h e desperate a t t e m p t o f a G r e e k (!) w i d o w e r t o p r o l o n g t h e h a p p y days o f his m a r r i a g e b e y o n d t h e d e a t h o f his w i f e .1 5 T h e fact that f i s h e r m e n salt fish f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e E g y p t i a n t e c h n i q u e s o f m u m m i f i c a t i o n are s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r ( r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e G r e e k e x p r e s s i o n f o r m u m m i f y i n g ,
Tapixeua),
is t h e s a m e as f o r salting o f fish) m a y i n t h e eyes o f a u t h o r a n d reader h a v e l e n t s o m e p l a u s i b i l i t y t o t h e story. T o p r e s u m e s i m i l a r l y p e r s o n a l s e n t i m e n t s as t h e m o t i v e that gave rise t o t h e E g y p t i a n c u s t o m w o u l d i m p l y t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s c o n c e r n e d h a d n o serious relation t o either t h e religious b a c k g r o u n d f o r m u m m i f i c a t i o n o r t h e sacred scenes d e p i c t e d o n t h e m u m m i f i e d b o d i e s .I n fact, t h e a s s u m p t i o n that t h e p e r i o d o f G r e e k and, especially, R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n w a s o n e o f i n c r e a s i n g d e c a d e n c e , w h e n t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n t e n t o f b o t h rituals a n d d e p i c t i o n s w a s n o l o n g e r u n d e r s t o o d a n d h a d d e g e n e r a t e d t o a m e r e f o r m a l i t y a d o p t e d c o m p a r a t i v e l y m e a n i n g l e s s l y a n d i n c o h e r e n t l y , w a s a n d still is q u i t e c o m m o n . B u t this o p i n i o n s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n m o d i f i e d i n t h e last f e w years - n o t least b y L o r e l e i C o r c o r a n h e r s e l f . S t u d i e s o f a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f genres h a v e s h o w n that e v e n i n i m p e r i a l times, scenes n o t o n l y s e r v e d d e c o r a t i v e p u r p o s e s b u t o r i g i n a t e d i n m e a n i n g f u l c o n c e p t s d e s i g n e d b y priests a n d e m b o d i e d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f o l d E g y p t i a n beliefs. T h e y w e r e o n l y m o d i f i e d : o n t h e o n e h a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d b y n e w ideas, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d r e d u c e d t o a s m a l l e r s e l e c t i o n o f s u b j e c t s t h a t c o n f o r m e d best w i t h t h e n e e d s o f t h e
faithful.1 6 L i k e w i s e , I h a v e s h o w n e l s e w h e r e1 7 that t h e scenes a n d s y m b o l s o n t h e b o d i e s o f portrait m u m m i e s w e r e selected p u r p o s e f u l l y a n d represent f o r t h e m o s t p a r t a small r a n g e o f p r i n c i p a l ideas. A d d i t i o n a l l y , it c o u l d b e s h o w n that t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f eclecticism that c o m e s t o m o s t people's m i n d s w h e n s e e i n g t h e portrait m u m m i e s is d e c e p t i v e . S k e t c h e s i n E g y p t i a n style o n t h e panels,1 8 realistic representations o f b o d i e s o n t h e m u m m y ,1 9 a n d c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s m a k e it clear that ' G r e e k ' a n d ' E g y p t i a n ' e l e m e n t s are n o t strictly c o n - fined t o a certain part o f t h e m u m m y . T h e separation o f p a i n t i n g a n d b o d y appears so natural o n l y t o o u r eyes, trained o n m o d e r n m u s e u m c o n d i t i o n s .2 0
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s — t o w h i c h L o r e l e i C o r c o r a n s e e m s t o a g r e e i n p r i n c i p l e - t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e fisherman i n X e n o p h o n c a n n o t b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e E g y p t i a n c u s t o m , w h i c h d e r i v e d from religious a n d social needs.
T h i s takes us b a c k t o t h e a n c i e n t texts m e n t i o n e d a b o v e a n d t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s b y Flinders Petrie o n t h e g i l d e d masks a n d portrait m u m m i e s . A s these s e e m t o b e t h e o n l y material e v i d e n c e f o r t h e habit o f k e e p i n g m u m m i e s i n t h e h o u s e s , t h e y w e l l d e s e r v e a c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n .
I w o u l d l i k e t o start w i t h a s h o r t l o o k at t h e
social b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e persons d e p i c t e d . S u r p r i s i n g l y e n o u g h , w r i t t e n references t o p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s are n o t k n o w n .2 1 A c o m b i n e d s t u d y o f b o t h t h e m u m m i e s a n d t h e u n i q u e l y detailed i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t R o m a n F a y u m s o c i e t y as p r o v i d e d b y t h e p a p y r i nevertheless allows us t o d r a w a r o u g h picture o f t h e social g r o u p represented here.2 2 T h e s e p e o p l e d o u b d e s s l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e l o c a l elite, c o n s i s t i n g o f l a n d o w n e r s , h i g h - r a n k i n g local officials a n d veterans o f t h e R o m a n army.
V e r y probably, s o m e o f these w e r e also R o m a n citizens w i t h all t h e privileges that w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h that status. O n o n e portrait that has r e c e n d y b e e n excavated at T h e b e s w e find a naukleros.23 S o m e c h i l d r e n w e a r a h a i r s t y l e t h a t is t y p i c a l f o r t h o s e w h o are g o i n g t o celebrate t h e mallokouria, a rite o f passage restricted t o o l dtTro yv\ivao'iov.24 A l l i n all, t h e y w e r e m e m b e r s o f t h e r i c h l o c a l u p p e r class. I n i m p e r i a l t i m e s this elite was e t h n i c a l l y m i x e d . T h i s is d e m o n s t r a t e d n o t o n l y b y p a p y r o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e like, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e epikrisis- lists, b u t also b y t h e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s o n m u m m y portraits, w h i c h d o n o t a l l o w a n y c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e e t h n i c i t y o f t h e d e p i c t e d .2 5 T h e n e c r o p o l e i s from w h i c h t h e portraits c o m e m a i n l y b e l o n g t o g a r r i s o n t o w n s o r t o w n s a n d v i l l a g e s that w e r e f o u n d e d o r n e w l y f o u n d e d b y t h e G r e e k s o r R o m a n s a n d that w e r e c u l t u r a l m e l t i n g p o t s i n particular. G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s l e f t their traces p r e d o m i n a n t l y o n a d m i n i s - t r a t i o n a n d social o r g a n i s a t i o n , b u t also o n t h e o u t e r appearance o f this class, w h o largely r e s e m b l e t h e o t h e r i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e eastern R o m a n p r o v i n c e s as t h e y appear t o us i n t h e f o r m o f statues, busts a n d reliefs.
R e m a r k a b l e o n l y is t h e a b s e n c e o f t y p i c a l l y R o m a n a t t r i b u t e s . T h e E g y p t i a n i n f l u e n c e is especially strong i n religious matters, e v e n i n t h e beliefs a b o u t death a n d
l i f e after d e a t h , a field that is usually least susceptible t o n e w ideas. A s early as t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC G r e e k s b e g a n t o h a v e their d e a d m u m r n i f i e d .
A t first these m u m m i e s l o o k e d m u c h t h e s a m e as t h e o r d i n a r y E g y p t i a n o n e s . O n l y after t h e b e g i n n i n g o f R o m a n r u l e d i d p a i n t e d portraits g r a d u a l l y — a n d o n l y at certain places a n d a m o n g a small social g r o u p — replace t h e o l d E g y p t i a n m a s k s that w e r e m e a n t as a n i m a g e o f t h e d e c e a s e d b u t c a r r i e d i d e a l features.
B y a d o p t i n g t h e v e r i s t i c p o r t r a i t t h e m u m m y w a s i n d i v i d u a l i s e d (PI. 45, 3).
T h i s , h o w e v e r , is o n l y t h e f o r m a l aspect. T h e f u n c t i o n a n d m e a n i n g o f portraits differ greatiy a m o n g R o m a n s a n d E g y p t i a n s . T h e portraits o f t h e R o m a n s — i n c l u d i n g their sepulchral portraits — w e r e n e i t h e r c u l t o b j e c t s n o r s o m e t h i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r a l i f e t o c o m e . T h e y c o n t r i b u t e d rather t o t h e survival o f t h e d e c e a s e d i n t h e m e m o r y o f their social s u r r o u n d i n g s . T h e y w e r e a m e a n s o f c r e a t i n g i d e n t i t y a n d o f e n a b l i n g s e l f - representation o f t h e deceased — w h o o f t e n e n j o i n e d b y w i l l t h e e r e c t i o n o f i m a g e s - a n d o f his f a m i l y .
T h e p o r t r a i t w a s n e v e r i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e p e r s o n d e p i c t e d b u t w a s always u n d e r s t o o d as a representation.
Its p u r p o s e w a s t o k e e p a w a k e i n his o w n f a m i l y t h e m e m o r y o f t h e ancestors w h o s e mos a n d e x a m p l e s t o o d b e f o r e t h e eyes o f t h e d e s c e n d a n t s , a n d also i n t h e w i d e r e n t o u r a g e that c o u l d b y v i e w i n g t h e m r e c o g n i s e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e family.
I n contrast t o this t h e E g y p t i a n m u m m y w a s de facto as w e l l as s y m b o l i c a l l y t h e deceased h i m s e l f . T h e m a s k w a s his i m a g e as O s i r i s N N a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e d w i t h his ideal, that is d i v i n e , features.2 6 L i k e t h e g o d O s i r i s a n d i n as close a n assimilation t o h i m as possible, t h e d e c e a s e d w i s h e d t o o v e r c o m e d e a t h a n d t o g a i n e t e r n a l l i f e b e y o n d . B o t h m u m m i f i c a t i o n a n d t h e d i v i n e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e m u m m y c o n t r i b u t e d i n a m a g i c a l w a y t o t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e d e a d o n t h e i r d a n g e r o u s w a y i n t o t h e o t h e r w o r l d .2 7 T h e a l w a y s - i d e n t i c a l o u t e r a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e m u m m y d o e s n o t o r i g i n a t e i n a possible lack o f i m a g i n a t i o n o n t h e part o f t h e a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s , w a i t i n g , as it w e r e , o n l y f o r t h e G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s t o release t h e m f r o m this state.
R a t h e r , t h i s o u t e r a p p e a r a n c e as a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a n O s i r i s w a s a n integral p a r t o f t h e h o p e f o r a n afterlife a n d o f t h e m a g i c c e r e m o n i a l .
N o w t h e m a s k w i t h t h e d i v i n e f a c e o f O s i r i s w a s replaced b y a h u m a n , i n d i v i d u a l portrait. F u r t h e r m o r e , i n s o m e cases t h e w h o l e b o d y o f t h e d e c e a s e d w a s d e p i c t e d ,2 8 p e r m i t t i n g its o r d i n a r y e a r t h l y a p p e a r a n c e t o d o m i n a t e t h e h o l y features o f t h e m u m m y . A c c o r d - i n g t o t h e E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t this m u s t h a v e d i m i n i s h e d t h e m a g i c p o w e r s o f t h e O s i r i a n f o r m — a s e r i o u s e n c r o a c h m e n t t h a t i n v i t e s t h e q u e s t i o n : f o r w h i c h n e w v a l u e m i g h t t h e y h a v e r e p l a c e d t h e o l d o n e ?
T h i s m a r k e d c h a n g e appears e v e n m o r e a s t o n i s h i n g w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e o f b u r i a l at H a w a r a as w e k n o w it f r o m P e t r i e a n d s o m e scattered n o t e s .2 9 T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e m u m m i e s w e r e n o t b u r i e d carefully i n
p r o p e r t o m b s , b u t i n m a n y instances w e r e p l a c e d i n p l a i n pits i n t h e desert sands w i t h o u t grave g o o d s . A n d this w a s d o n e n o n e t o o g e n d y : w h e n t h e p i t t u r n e d o u t t o b e t o o small t h e m u m m y w a s c r a m m e d i n t o it e v e n i f it b r o k e o r o t h e r w i s e suffered. S o m e t i m e s , t h e shafts o f o l d c h a m b e r t o m b s w e r e r e - u s e d a n d t h e m u m m i e s w e r e s q u e e z e d i n i n a n u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n o r h e a d first.
M o r e o v e r , after t h e p i t w a s refilled w i t h sand t h e p l a c e c o u l d n e v e r b e traced again because n o m a r k e r , h o w - e v e r i n c o n s p i c u o u s , w a s p l a c e d a b o v e g r o u n d . D e a t h rituals that w e r e c o m m o n i n all r e l i g i o n s relevant t o o u r c o n t e x t c a n n o t have t a k e n p l a c e here. C o n s i d e r i n g these c i r c u m s t a n c e s o n e c o u l d perhaps h a v e e x p l a i n e d t h e c o s t l y d e c o r a t i o n o f a m u m m y i n t h e E g y p t i a n s t y l e b y p o i n t i n g t o t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m a g i c p o w e r s associated w i t h it. Y e t , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a m u c h m o r e h u m a n a p p e a r a n c e n o w b e c o m e s t o t a l l y u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , s i n c e this d e p r i v e d t h e deceased o f s o m e o f t h e s e m a g i c f o r c e s . O n l y i f P e t r i e w a s r i g h t , a n d t h e m u m m i e s that w e r e later o n treated so b a d l y s t o o d first i n t h e h o u s e o f their relatives a n d r e c e i v e d s o m e k i n d o f d o m e s t i c c u l t , c a n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e e x p l a i n e d .3 0
W h a t , t h e n , w a s t h e o r i g i n o f that c u s t o m ? N e i t h e r i n G r e e k n o r i n R o m a n r e l i g i o n is there a n y i n d i c a t i o n o f a d o m e s t i c c u l t o f t h e d e a d . L i k e w i s e , i n p h a r a o n i c E g y p t t h e d e a d w e r e n o t k e p t i n t h e h o u s e o f t h e relatives b u t , after e m b a l m i n g , w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d i n a c e r e m o n i a l p r o c e s s i o n t o t h e t o m b , w h e r e t h e y w e r e b u r i e d a n d r e c e i v e d sacrifices. L a t e r o n t h e y w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d o n v a r i o u s days. T h e f a m i l y o f f e r e d sacrifices at t h e t o m b a n d a p p a r e n d y also i n v i t e d guests t o a s o l e m n b a n q u e t that t o o k p l a c e i n special r o o m s o f t h e t e m p l e .3 1
H o w e v e r , f o r s o m e t i m e n o w , a n increasing n u m b e r o f references h a v e i n d i c a t e d that there already existed i n p h a r a o n i c t i m e s a c u l t f o r t h e deceased i n t h e h o u s e o f t h e relatives. R . J . D e m a r e e3 2 p u b l i s h e d a g r o u p o f stelae, t h e s o - c a l l e d a k h - i k e r stelae, m a i n l y from D e i r e l - M e d i n a , b u t s o m e f r o m o t h e r places as w e l l , that all b e l o n g t o t h e i 8 t h - 2 0 t h dynasties (PI. 2 6 , 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s t h e y w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o t h e d e p a r t e d b y f a m i l y (fathers, sons, brothers) or, i n s o m e cases, b y a d m i r e r s w h o d i d n o t b e l o n g t o t h e f a m i l y . T h e s e stelae w e r e a p l a c e i n w h i c h t o f a c e t h e d e a d a n d t o sacrifice t o t h o s e w h o s e spirits w e r e o n t h e o n e h a n d f e a r e d a n d t h e r e f o r e h a d t o b e a p p e a s e d b u t f r o m w h o m , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n t e r c e s s i o n a n d o t h e r a d v a n t a g e s w e r e also e x p e c t e d . S o m e o f f e r i n g - t a b l e s a n d l i b a t i o n - b a s i n s m u s t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n s c r i p - t i o n s , h a v e s e r v e d t h e s a m e p u r p o s e . R e m a r k a b l y e n o u g h , these D e i r e l - M e d i n a stelae, tables a n d basins h a v e all b e e n f o u n d i n t h e l i v i n g quarters o f t h e t o w n . T h e y s t o o d i n v o t i v e chapels, i n t h e streets a n d p u b l i c places, b u t also i n w a l l recesses i n t h e h o u s e s .
T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a d o m e s t i c c u l t o f t h e d e a d is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e 'calendar o f l u c k y a n d u n l u c k y days' t h a t m o s t p r o b a b l y b e l o n g s t o t h e 19th d y n a s t y a n d w h i c h prescribes d o m e s t i c o f f e r i n g s t o t h e dead.3 3
Finally, a g r o u p o f l i f e - s i z e t o h a l f - l i f e - s i z e a n t h r o p o - m o r p h i c busts p r o b a b l y b e l o n g s t o a d o m e s t i c ancestral c u l t o r cult o f t h e d e a d (PI. 2 6 , 2). O n l y rarely d o t h e y bear i n s c r i p t i o n s b u t t h e y are n o w a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s l y regarded as i m a g e s o f deceased persons.3 4 M o s t o f t h e m a g a i n c o m e f r o m D e i r e l - M e d i n a w h e r e t h e y w e r e d i s p l a y e d m a i n l y i n h o u s e s — p r e s u m a b l y i n t h e first r e c e p t i o n h a l l — a n d , m o r e rarely, i n p u b l i c c h a p e l s . O t h e r s are f r o m different sites a n d s h o w slight i c o n o - g r a p h i c alterations. T h e i r a d o r a t i o n is s h o w n o n t w o reliefs (Fig. i ) .3 5
— . - J
Fig. 1. D r a w i n g o f stela from A b y d o s , s h o w i n g w o r s h i p o f a n ancestral bust (after M a r i e t t e ) .
I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , t h e r e are several clear i n d i c a - t i o n s o f a d o m e s t i c ancestral c u l t already i n p l a c e i n p h a r a o n i c E g y p t , a cult that c o u l d b e celebrated e v e n i n front o f i m a g e s o f t h e deceased!3 6 S u c h cults s e e m t o h a v e b e e n t h e e x c e p t i o n rather t h a n t h e rule, a n d u p t o n o w there is n o c h r o n o l o g i c a l series i n t o t h e G r e e k a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s . T h e r e m a y b e t w o m a i n reasons f o r this. First, e x c a v a t i o n s o f l i v i n g q u a r t e r s that c o u l d p r o v i d e f u r t h e r data are still rather scarce a n d , secondly, w e face a p r o b l e m o f visibility — o r l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n t o less clearly visible m a t e r i a l . A n c e s t r a l c u l t w a s m a i n l y p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n , t h e b e l i e f s a m o n g t h e m i d d l e a n d l o w e r classes,3 7 w h e r e a s t h e m a t e r i a l e v i d e n c e that usually catches t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a r c h a e o - logists a n d E g y p t o l o g i s t s gives i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y a b o u t t h e u p p e r m o s t class a n d its i d e o l o g y . O n e reason f o r t h e
fact that m o s t o f t h e e v i d e n c e f o r ancestral cult c o m e s from D e i r e l - M e d i n a m a y b e t h e v e r y ability o f t h e c r a f t s m e n l i v i n g t h e r e t o m a n i f e s t t h e i r b e l i e f s i n a m o r e ' v i s i b l e ' f o r m . T h u s , i n s p i t e o f t h e l a c k o f c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d e n c e , t h e later c u s t o m o f k e e p i n g t h e m u m m i e s o f t h e deceased i n t h e h o u s e c a n o n l y b e d e r i v e d from t h e E g y p t i a n ancestral cult.
I n c e r t a i n c o n t r a c t s , fixed days w e r e s o m e t i m e s d e t e r m i n e d f o r c e r e m o n i e s f o r t h e d e a d , b u t a d d i t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g t h e general f o r m u l a t i o n ' a n d o n a n y festive o c c a s i o n s ' o r t h e l i k e suggest t h a t t h e r e w e r e n o c o m m o n specific days f o r t h e dead. T h e y c o u l d rather b e c o m m e m o r a t e d o n a n y festival.3 8 It m u s t r e m a i n a m a t t e r o f s p e c u l a t i o n as t o w h a t f o r m a d o m e s t i c c u l t f o r t h e m u m m y m i g h t h a v e taken, w h i l e n e w p a p y r o - l o g i c a l o r material e v i d e n c e is n o t available. Possibly t h e sacrifices f o r t h e m u m m i e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e traditional m a n n e r i n front o f t h e a k h - i k e r stelae, tables, basins o r busts, b u t S i l i u s Italicus a n d L u c i a n also a l l o w f o r t h e c o n c l u s i o n that t h e m e r e presence o f t h e m u m m i e s at b a n q u e t s h e l d o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h o s e festivals i m p l i e d t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e deceased i n it, a n d thus replaced a p r o p e r sacrifice.
Festivals, a n d b a n q u e t s i n particular, played a m a j o r r o l e i n E g y p t i a n practices s u r r o u n d i n g death f o r a l o n g t i m e . I n o u r c o n t e x t , t h e representations o f b a n q u e t s f o r t h e d e a d i n N e w K i n g d o m t o m b s m a y b e interest- i n g .3 9 T h e early representations are d o m i n a t e d b y m a n y registers o f guests. T h e i r great n u m b e r emphasises t h e s p l e n d o u r o f t h e feast, w h e r e a s t h e s t e r e o t y p e d setting gives t h e d e p i c t i o n a rather ritual character. Later o n t h e o w n e r o f t h e t o m b ' m o v e s ' m o r e a n d m o r e i n t o t h e centre, displayed t o g e t h e r w i t h his w i f e i n front o f an o f f e r i n g - t a b l e o r a small stand, f a c i n g smaller g r o u p s o f guests o n t h e o t h e r side o f it. T h e latter are s h o w n far m o r e v i v i d l y a n d c a n also consist o f m i x e d couples. T h e o r i g i n a l l y stiff a n d c e r e m o n i a l s c e n e b e c o m e s a lively d e p i c t i o n o f a b a n q u e t w h e r e t h e deceased is i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o f t h e participants a n d e n j o y s t h e a m e n i t i e s o f t h e festival.
N o w , w h e n d u r i n g t h e G r e e k a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s m u m m i e s are present at t h e b a n q u e t s i n t h e h o u s e o f t h e i r relatives, t h e d e c e a s e d is r e g a r d e d n o t j u s t as a p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r reality b u t as a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t . H i s h u m a n a p p e a r a n c e , w i t h t h e realistic p o r t r a i t a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e w h o l e b o d y d e p i c t e d o n t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e m u m m y , c o r r e s - p o n d s perfectly t o his character as a participant i n t h e festival.
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e step f r o m v e n e r a t i n g t h e d e a d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f substitutes l i k e stelae o r busts, o r from t h e d e p i c t i o n o f b a n q u e t s f o r t h e dead, t o t h e factual, physical a t t e n d a n c e o f t h e deceased i n t h e f o r m o f his m u m m y , c a n n o t b e overestimated, a n d it w o u l d b e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g t o k n o w w h e n it w a s m a d e a n d u n d e r w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . It w a s n o later t h a n t h e third c e n t u r y BC, as w e k n o w from Teles, b u t it m a y h a v e b e e n e v e n earlier. O n c e t h e p r a c t i c e w a s i n t r o d u c e d , t h e n e w f o r m o f t h e portrait m u m m y m u s t
h a v e f u l f i l l e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e c u l t as w e l l as t h e d e m a n d for representation particularly w e l l .
U p t o n o w w e h a v e f o c u s e d e s s e n t i a l l y o n t h e r e l i g i o u s aspects o f t h e c h a n g e s caused b y t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e v e r i s t i c R o m a n p o r t r a i t i n t o E g y p t i a n c u l t p r a c t i c e , b u t t h e r e is a n o t h e r aspect. A s w e n o t i c e d a b o v e , t h e c h a n g e f r o m a n idealised d i v i n e a p p e a r a n c e t o a naturalistic o n e r e s u l t e d i n a n i n d i v i d u a l i s a t i o n o f t h e m u m m y . N o w , i n d i v i d u a l i s m w a s n o t o n l y a R o m a n b u t also an o l d E g y p t i a n p r i n c i p l e w i t h i n t h e beliefs s u r r o u n d i n g death, p r o v i d i n g c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l b o t h i n e t e r n a l l i f e a n d i n c o l l e c t i v e m e m o r y .4 0 T h e o l d E g y p t i a n p o r t r a i t sculpture already s h o w e d phases o f veristic representations that alternated w i t h generalising a n d idealising o n e s . Characteristically, a n e w d i m e n s i o n o f v e r i s m w a s r e a c h e d t h e m o m e n t that t h e i m a g e s n o l o n g e r s t o o d i n t h e l o c k e d c h a m b e r o f t h e serdab, sealed o f f f r o m a n y e x t r a n e o u s glance, b u t w e r e erected i n p u b l i c places, t h e t e m p l e s , w h e r e t h e y w e r e accessible at least o n certain o c c a s i o n s t o a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f p e o p l e : h e r e t h e y also served a representative a n d c o m m e m o r a t i v e p u r p o s e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e c o m m u n i t y o f t h e l i v i n g .4 1
I n t h e G r e e k a n d particularly i n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d s this v e r i s m increased dramatically. T h i s is t r u e b o t h f o r sculptures, t h e p u r p o s e o f w h i c h c a n n o t i n m o s t cases b e d e t e r m i n e d d u e t o m i s s i n g c o n t e x t s , as w e l l as f o r t h e m u m m i e s c o n s i d e r e d here. T h e o u t e r a p p e a r a n c e o f these m u m m i e s w i t h their n e w retrospective, w o r l d l y a n d i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m u s t b e s e e n i n c o n - n e c t i o n w i t h their presence at a p l a c e that w a s far m o r e accessible t h a n a n o l d E g y p t i a n t e m p l e . T h e m u m m i e s t h e r e f o r e s e e m t o f u l f i l a n u r g e f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n g r a n t e d b y b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c d e p i c t i o n a n d t h e l u x u r i o u s d e c o r a t i o n .
I n this c o n n e c t i o n w e m a y r e c o n s i d e r a n o b s e r v a t i o n b y B . V . B o t h m e r . H e n o t i c e d that t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m u m m y p o r t r a i t s b e g i n s at a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e g e n r e o f p r i v a t e statues i n t h e t e m p l e s c o m e s t o a n e n d .4 2 W e d o n o t k n o w w h y t h e s e statues d o n o t o c c u r a n y m o r e , a n d t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o i n c i d e n c e c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d e i t h e r . K . Parlasca suggested that t h e statues m i g h t h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y p a i n t e d portraits,4 3 b u t it m a y w e l l b e that t h e e r e c t i o n o f p r i v a t e i m a g e s i n t h e t e m p l e s w a s p r o h i b i t e d f r o m s o m e t i m e i n t h e early i m p e r i a l p e r i o d o n w a r d s , o r it m a y j u s t h a v e g o n e o u t o f u s e f o r s o m e u n k n o w n reason. T h e f u n c t i o n o f these t e m p l e statues w a s m o r e o r less t h e s a m e as that o f grave statues,4 4 a n d from t h e N e w K i n g d o m o n w a r d s t h e i r c h a r a c t e r b e c a m e increasingly representative. A f t e r this g e n r e o f p r i v a t e t e m p l e statues ceased t o exist, therefore, a n d after t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o erect p r i v a t e i m a g e s i n t h e t e m p l e s m a y a n y w a y h a v e b e e n restricted, this f u n c t i o n m a y h a v e shifted t o t h e private a n d sepulchral sphere.
H e r e t h e outer, aesthetic s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e m u m m y portraits t o b o t h t h e ancestors' portraits a n d h o n o r a r y i m a g e s o f t h e R o m a n s m e e t s w i t h a s i m i l a r i t y i n m e a n i n g : l i k e t h e latter, t h e y n o w h a d a r e t r o a c t i v e
effect u p o n society. T h e y b e c a m e a m e d i u m f o r r e p r e - s e n t a t i o n o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d his family. T o w h a t d e g r e e a n c e s t o r s i n R o m a n E g y p t h a d a n o r m a t i v e b e a r i n g , as t h e y h a d i n R o m e itself, has t o b e e x a m i n e d b y m o r e c o m p e t e n t scholars a n d o n t h e basis o f a w i d e r r a n g e o f material. I n p h a r a o n i c E g y p t t h e cult o f t h e d e a d that g r a n t e d t h e afterlife was a central c o n s t i t u e n t o f daily life, w h e r e a s t h e ancestral cult d i d n o t play a m a j o r role. I n R o m e a p p a r e n d y it w a s t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d . T h e actual c u l t o f t h e d e a d that served t h e souls i n t h e o t h e r w o r l d w a s o f m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e c o m p a r e d t o t h e rites c o n c e r n i n g t h e ancestors. T h e h o p e f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l afterlife w a s l o o k e d u p o n rather sceptically.
S u r v i v a l as a n i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t e d o n l y i n t h e m e m o r y o f t h e d e s c e n d a n t s a n d o f society. T h u s s e p u l c h r a l rites have a p r e d o m i n a n d y c o m m e m o r a t i v e character.
A n c e s t r a l portraits c a r r i e d a r o u n d i n f u n e r a l processions g u a r a n t e e d this s u r v i v a l i n m e m o r y as w e l l as a n y display o f portraits i n t h e p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e sphere.4 5 A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e y also s e r v e d t h e d e s c e n d a n t s as a f o c u s f o r creating i d e n t i t y b o t h w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y a n d w i t h i n society. T h u s their f u n c t i o n w a s a t o p i c a l o n e .
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e R o m a n p o r t r a i t i n t o t h e E g y p t i a n c u l t o f t h e d e a d is at t h e s a m e t i m e a p r o d u c t a n d a cause o f a shift i n t h e emphasis b e t w e e n t h e cult o f t h e d e a d a n d a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p o f t h e latter.
T h e d e c e a s e d a n d h i s a f t e r l i f e are n o l o n g e r t h e d o m i n a n t central issue o f t h e ritual p r a c t i c e b u t take o n , a n d w e r e p r o b a b l y m e a n t t o take o n , a m a j o r r o l e i n s h a p i n g social relationships. T o b e sure, this habit c o u l d b y n o m e a n s h a v e b e e n p r e v a l e n t . N o t o n l y w a s it restricted t o a v e r y small, elite g r o u p o f society, b u t also these families w i l l h a r d l y h a v e treated all their d e p a r t e d i n t h e s a m e w a y .4 6 T h i s is i n d i c a t e d n o t least b y t h e U m i t e d space available i n t h e h o u s e . W e s h o u l d p r e s u m e r a t h e r t h a t o n l y a m i n o r i t y o f t h e f a m i l y ' s d e c e a s e d w e r e h o n o u r e d i n this w a y — f o r reasons w e d o n o t k n o w .
W h a t e v e r t h e r e l i g i o u s beliefs a n d social i m p l i c a t i o n s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e d i s p l a y a n d v e n e r a t i o n o f p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s m a y h a v e b e e n precisely, t h e fact that m u m m i e s w e r e k e p t i n t h e h o u s e f o r s o m e t i m e , a n d m o s t p r o b a b l y r e c e i v e d s o m e sort o f c u l t there, helps t o e x p l a i n t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e character o f t h e m u m m i e s — c o s d y b u t w e a k e n e d i n their m a g i c p o w e r s b y t h e i r n e w w o r l d l y s h a p e — a n d t h e i r careless, s o m e t i m e s e v e n r u d e b u r i a l w i t h o u t a n y grave markers.
T h e E g y p t i a n ancestral cult rarely g o e s b a c k m o r e t h a n o n e o r t w o g e n e r a t i o n s , as is s h o w n n o t least b y t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s o n t h e a k h - i k e r stelae.47 T h i s leads t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n that t h e portrait m u m m i e s w e r e k e p t i n t h e h o u s e f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e t i m e . A f t e r t h e i m m e d i a t e relatives h a d d i e d t h e m s e l v e s , a n d after interest i n t h e m o r e distant ancestors h a d f a d e d , t h e m u m m i e s m a y h a v e b e e n h a n d e d o v e r t o t h e t e m p l e i n charge. A s is s h o w n b y t h e different c o n t e x t s , t h e k i n d o f b u r i a l t h e y w e r e g i v e n d e p e n d e d o n m a n y factors that c a n o n l y b e i d e n t i f i e d o n t h e basis o f n e w e v i d e n c e a n d e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h .4 8 I n t h e case o f t h e careless
b u r i a l s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , a p r o p e r f a m i l y t o m b w a s o b v i o u s l y n o t a v a i l a b l e . P e r h a p s t h e r e l a t i v e s w e r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d a n y m o r e i n a n e x p e n s i v e b u r i a l a n d e n t r u s t e d t h e m u m m i e s o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s t o t h e priests o r servants o f t h e t e m p l e w h o , a w a y f r o m t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e f a m i l y , c a r e d as l i t t l e f o r t h e b u r i a l as t h e y o f t e n d i d b e f o r e f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e b o d i e s d u r i n g e m b a l m i n g . 4 9
Acknowledgements
This essay is a slighdy extended version of a paper presented at the London colloquium and at Heidelberg University in July 1995. I am indebted, above all, to the organisers of the
London colloquium, WV. Davies and M.L. Bierbrier, for the invitation. The British Museum and Heidelberg University are gratefully acknowledged for their financial support. I am also grateful to the participants in each of the discussions for their comments and criticism. Not least I should like to thank Angela Wheeler and Glenn W. Most for their corrections to my English.
Notes
1. Aegyptia tellus claudit odorato postfunus stantia saxo corpora et a mensis exanguetn haud separat umbram. Translation by J.D. Duff, Loeb edition vol. II (Cambridge, MA/London, 1961).
2. TapixetieL 8e 6 AtyfrnTios'. OUTO? p e v ye - Xiyut 8e IStov - f n p d v a TOV veKpov avvSeiirvov Kal <jv\nr6rT\v
eTroi.f|CFaTO. Translation by A. M. Harmon, Loeb edition vol.
IV (Cambridge, M A / London, 1961).
3. Another manifestation of this lack of interest is the fact that many editors and commentators trace back the statements of these two authors and some others quoted below (note 4) to Herodotus 2.78, which, as will soon be shown in more detail, has nothing to do with these references. The most out- standing case is H. Rupprecht's translation of'exanguem . . . umbram' as 'Skelett' (skeleton) (Titus Catius Silius Italicus.
Punia, das Epos vom zweiten Punischen Krieg, II (Mitterfels, 1991), 120, note 476; 121).
4. Teles, ed. Hense, 31, 9-10; 32, 1: Kal f\\ieig pev Kal ISeiv K a l dipaoQai 6KVOV[1€V ol 8e OKeXerevoavres evSov
exovaiv ti>s KaXov TL K a l evixv?a T°vs veKpovg XapfMvouaiv.
Diodorus 1.92.6: TO Se crwpa TiOeaaiv ol pev ISLOUS"
eXO^Te? Tdcfjou? ev TOXS cUToSeSeiypevais' Of^ai?, ots-
8'oux iJTrdpxoixn Ta<fxov KTf)creis", Kawbv oucnpa iTOLoOca Kara TT|V ISlav oiKiav, Kal irpos' T6V dcrcJxiXecrraTOV TWV TOLXUV 6p0r]V lOTaca TT)V XdpyaKa. According to Diodorus, the habit of keeping the dead in the house is restricted to those families that do not possess a private sepulchre. If this is true it does not imply that the habit applies to poor people:
mummification and the material used for it was available only for the wealthy anyway.
Cicero, Tusc. 1.108: 'Condiunt Aegyptii mortuos et eos servant domi ...'
Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrh. hyp. 3.226: A l y m m o i 8e Td evTepa e^e\6vres Tapixeuocav airrovs Kal aw kavTols (rrrep yfjs- ^XovaiV-
5. Cf. the lists of funerary practices in Cicero, Silius Italicus, Lucian and Sextus Empiricus. Cicero (note 4 above) refers to
Chrysippus, who, he says, has collected these and even more abnormal customs among the peoples of the world.
6. R . Merkelbach, 'Diodor iiber das Totengericht der Agypter', ZAS 120 (1993), 7 1 - 8 4 .
7. This is certainly true for Silius Italicus (or whoever inserted the relevant passage, if it was not Silius Italicus himself, as some critics suggest), Teles (who may draw from Bion), Cicero and Sextus Empiricus.
8. For a general survey of the subject see K.A.D. Smelik and E.A. Hemelrijk, '"Who knows not what monsters demented Egypt worships?" Opinions on Egyptian animal worship in antiquity as part of the ancient conception of Egypt', ANRW II 17.4 (Berlin/NewYork, 1984), 1852-2000.
9. Athanasius,Ant. 90-91; Ch. Mohrmann (ed.), Vite dei Santi I-.Vita diAntonio (Milan, 1974) 1 6 9 - 7 3 ; 2 6 6 (comment).
10. C. Schmidt, 'Ein altchristliches Mumienetikett, nebst Bemerkungen iiber das Begrabniswesen der Kopten', ZAS 32 (1894), 52-62; Th. Baumeister, 'Vorchristliche Bestattungssitten und die Entstehung des Martyrerkultes in Agypten', RdmQSchr 69 (1974), 1 - 6 .
11. W.M.F. Petrie, Roman Portraits and Memphis (IV) (London, 1911), 2.
12. For the present cf. C. Nauerth, Vom Tod zum Leben. Die christlichen Totenerweckungen in der sp'dtantiken Kunst. Gottinger Orientforschungen II, 1 (Wiesbaden, 1980), 117-25. A.B.
Lloyd in his commentary on Herodotus (Herodotus, Book II, Commentary i—g8 (Leiden, 1976), 335-7) mentions some small figures from Egypt that are also skeletons or dried bodies (but no mummies — so it remains obscure why even Lloyd suggests that Lucian, De luctu, 21 might belong in this context).
13. On the meaning of this procedure cf. Plut. Is. 17 = mor.
357 F and Sept. Sap. Conv. 2 = mor. 148 A-B. On the memento mori or carpe diem cf. e.g. G. Wohrle, 'Eine sehr hiibsche Mahn-Mumie . . .' Zur Rezeption eines herodoteischen Motivs, Hermes 118 (1990), 292-301.
14. Abrokomes and Anthia V 1, 4-11. L. Corcoran, 'A Cult Function for the so-called Faiyum Mummy Portraits?', in J.
H . Johnson (ed.), Life in a Multi-Cultural Society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond, S A O C 51 (Chicago, 1992), 60.
15. Cf. the lamentations of Admetos in Euripides' Alkestis (348-52), who intends to have an artist make an image of Alkestis to lie in his bed and drive away his loneliness.
16. See e.g. D. Kurth, Der Sarg der Theiiris (Mainz, 1990); D.
Kurth, 'Die Friese innerhalb der Tempeldekoration griechisch-romischer Zeit', in M. Minas and J. Zeidler (eds), Aspekte spdtagyptischer Kultur. Festschrift fur Erich Winter zum 65. Geburtstag, Aegyptiaca Treverensia 7 (Mainz, 1994), 191-201; L. Corcoran, Portrait Mummies from Roman Egypt (I- IV Centuries AD), SAOC 56 (Chicago, 1996).
17. B. Borg, Mumienportrats - Chronologie und kultureller Kontext (in press), Ch. 6.
18. Cf. Warsaw, National Museum, inv. 127191 = K. Parlasca, Repertorio d'Arte dell'Egitto Greco-Romano, Series B, vol. I (Palermo, 1969), 35-6 no. 35, pi. 10,1 (subsequent quotations from this and the following two volumes II and III (Rome,
1977 and 1980), which also provide a good bibliography, are abbreviated as Rep. x.); Stuttgart, Wiirttembergisches Landesmuseum, inv. 7.4 = Rep. 172; New York, MMA, inv.
44.2.2 = Rep. 444; Private Collection = Rep. 475.
19. Cairo, Aegypt. Mus., C.G. 33217 = Rep. 101; Cairo, Aegypt. Mus., C.G. 33218 = Rep. 127; London, BM, Dept. of Egyptian Antiquities, inv. 6715A = Rep. 413; Hildesheim, permanent loan Stiftung Niedersachsen, Hannover (Pelizaeus- Museum Hildesheim, Die Agyptische Sammlung (Mainz,
1993). I0<5. %• Malibu, CA, J. P. Getty Museum, inv.
81.AP.42 (D. L.Thompson, Mummy Portraits (Malibu, 1982) , 32 no. 1; colour pi. on 33; 64).
20. For more detailed discussion see Borg (note 17 above).
21. However, papyrological evidence for ritual and other practices connected with death are generally rare; for some of these see D. Montserrat, this volume.
22.1 have treated this topic in more detail elsewhere (Borg, note 17 above, particularly Ch. 7), but it still remains a vast field for further multidisciplinary research.
23. J. Quaegebeur, 'Fouilles de l'Assassif 1970-1975', CdE 50 (1975). 37-8.
24. D. Montserrat,'Mallokouria andTherapeuteria. Rituals of transition in a mixed society?', BASP 28 (1991), pp. 43—9; B.
Legras, 'Mallokouria et mallocouretes. Un rite de passage dans 1'Egypte romaine', Cahiers du Centre G. Glotz. Revue d'histoire ancienne 4 (1993), 113—27; Borg (note 17 above), Chs 6.1,7.7.
25. Cf. R.S. Bagnall in this volume; with special reference to the mummy portraits, see Borg (note 17 above), Ch. 7.1.
26. For a summary of these ideas see e.g. M. C. Root, Faces of Immortality: Egyptian Mummy Masks, Painted Portraits and Canopic Jars in the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology (Ann Arbor, i979)> 5-
27. E. Hornung, 'Vom Sinn der Mumifizierung', Die Welt des Orients 14 (1983), 167—75.
28. Cf. note 19 above.
29. W.M.F. Petrie, Hawara, Biahmu andArsinoe (London 1889), 20; Petrie (note 11 above), 23; H. Brugsch, 'Der Moeris-See und das Todtenfeld von Hawara', 15. Jahresbericht des Vereins fur Erdkunde zu Metz (1892/3), 25; R . V. Kaufmann,
Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anthropologic, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte 24 (1892), 416.
30. We might consider whether these burials could be secondary burials, as some participants in the conference suggested. To my mind at least two arguments can be raised against this. First of all, the Hawara pits were mosdy single graves, and rarely contained more than two mummies. In this necropolis there is no evidence so far for cachettes contain- ing a multitude of mummies as is typical for the earlier secondary burials. Secondly, simple pit graves are not restricted to Hawara but seem to have been (among others) a common Graeco-Roman type (cf.Achmim, necropolis A: R . Forrer, Mein Besuch in Achmim. Reisebriefe aus Agypten (Strassburg, 1895), 36-9; K. P. Kulhmann, Materialien zur Archaologie und Geschichte des Raumes von Achmim (Mainz,
1983), 52-63, fig. 14).
31. D. Montserrat, "The Kline ofAnubis'JIM 78 (1992), 301-6.
32. R.J. Demaree, The Ih ikr n R'-Stelae. On Ancestor Worship in Ancient Egypt (Leiden, 1983).
33. A . M . Bakir, The Cairo Calendar No. 86637 (Cairo, 1966), 33 (Rt. XXIII 11).
34. W. Kaiser, 'Zur Biiste als einer Darstellungsform agyptischer Rundplastik', MDAIK 46 (1990), 269—85 with bibliography.
35. Kaiser (note 34 above), 272 nos 20-1.
36. On Egyptian ancestral cult in general, see M. Fitzenreiter, 'Zum Ahnenkult in Agypten', Gottinger Miszellen 143 (1994), 51-72.
37. Cf. Fitzenreiter (note 36 above).
38. LA VI, 645-7 s.v. Totenfeste; 677-9 s.v. Totenmahl (U. Verhoeven).
39. S. Schott, 'Das schone Fest vom Wiistental — Festbrauche einer Totenstadt', Abhandlungen der Mainzer Akademie der Wissenschqften und Literatur 11 (Wiesbaden, 1952); J. Assmann, 'Der schone Tag. Sinnlichkeit und Verganglichkeit im altagyptischen Fest', in W. Haug and R . Warning (eds), Das Fest. Poetik und Hermeneutik 14 (Munich, 1989), 3-28.
40. J. Assmann, Stein und Zeit. Mensch und Gesellschaft imAlten Agypten (Munich, 1991), 159-161.
41. Assmann (note 40 above), 138—61.
42. B.V. Bothmer, Egyptian Sculpture in the Late Period.
Exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum 18 October ig6o — g January 1961 (NewYork, i960), XXXIII-XXXIV; 183-4.
43. K. Parlasca, Mumienportrdts und verwandte Denkmaler (Wiesbaden, 1966), 93-4 no. 20.
44. H . Kayser, Die Tempelstatuen agyptischer Privatleute im mittleren und im neuen Reich (Heidelberg, 1936).
45. On the similar function of ancestral and honorary portraits cf.T. Holscher, 'Die Anfange Romischer Reprasen- tationskunst', RM 85 (1978), 315—57, particularly 324-44, who stresses the representative and political aspects.
46. We find, for example, different kinds of decoration on mummies that were discovered in what were most probably family tombs: e.g. R . Germer, H. Kischkewitz and M.
Luning,'Das Grab der Aline und die Untersuchung der darin gefundenen Kindermumien', AW 24 (1993), 186-96; W A . Daszewski,'Marina el-Alamein 1991', Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean III (Warsaw, 1992), 29—39.
47. LA I (Wiesbaden, 1975), 111—12 s.v. Ahnenkult (D. Wildung); Demaree (note 32 above), 282.
48. Cf., for example, the different kinds of burials described in reports quoted above (note 46 above); Parlasca (note 43 above), 18-58; Borg (note 17 above), Ch. 9.
49. Cf. J. Filer, this volume.
32
