Munich Personal RePEc Archive
Alpha-root Processes for Derivatives pricing
Balakrishna, B S
11 January 2010
Online at https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/21396/
MPRA Paper No. 21396, posted 16 Mar 2010 01:19 UTC
Alpha-Root Processes for Derivatives Pricing
B. S. BALAKRISHNA
βJanuary 11, 2010, Revised: February 16, 2010.
Abstract
A class of mean reverting positive stochastic processes driven by πΌβstable distri- butions, referred to here as πΌβroot processes in analogy to the square root process (Cox-Ingersoll-Ross process), is a subclass of aο¬ne processes, in particular continuous state branching processes with immigration (CBI processes). Being aο¬ne, they provide semi-analytical results for the implied term structures as well as for the characteristic exponents for their associated distributions. Their use has not been appreciated in the ο¬eld perhaps due to lack of an eο¬cient numerical algorithm to supplement their semi-analytical results. The present article introduces a convenient formulation of such processes, CBI processes in general, in the form of pure-jump processes of inο¬nite activ- ity. The formulation admits an eο¬cient simulation algorithm that enables an extensive investigation of their properties.
Stochastic processes are the building blocks of modeling discipline. Though Brownian motion has been largely successful in this regard, there are certain areas where more advanced processes could be helpful. This is especially so in mathematical ο¬nance wherein alternate processes have been utilized, in particular to provide an explanation to parameter smiles, such as volatility smiles or correlation smiles. Among other approaches, a class of stochastic processes called πΌβstable LΒ΄evy processes have been used for this purpose with encouraging results. Because applicableπΌusually lies between 1 and 2, and the associated stable processes can have negative values, their use has been largely limited to their exponentials as stochastic variables of interest. This makes them analytically intractable for many objects of interest, such as term structures of discount factors in interest rate modeling or survival probabilities in credit risk modeling.
It is known that the Cox-Ingersoll-Ross process, also known as the square-root process, though conο¬ned only to the positive real axis, admits analytical results for term structure modeling. It belongs to a class of aο¬ne processes, the spot rate in interest rate modeling being related aο¬nely to the short rate. It is driven by Brownian motion which in the language of stable processes has πΌ = 2. A natural question then arises as to whether there exist πΌβroot processes driven by πΌβstable distributions, and whether they too exhibit the aο¬ne property. As it turns out, the answer to this question is pleasantly in the aο¬rmative. πΌβroot processes thus provide a natural and appealing approach to aο¬ne jump diο¬usion processes
βEmail: balak bs@yahoo.co.in
by incorporating jumps into the diο¬usion component itself to turn it into anπΌβroot process, rather than extending the process to include a jump component.
The class of aο¬ne processes is a well-studied branch of mathematics, and has been char- acterized in generality by Duο¬e, Filipovic and Schachermayer [2003]. However, this class being rather large, identiο¬cation of speciο¬c aο¬ne processes for their usefulness is important in itself. Being a subclass of aο¬ne processes, in particular continuous state branching pro- cesses with immigration (CBI processes), and a natural extension of the square-root process, πΌβroot processes have caught the attention of researchers in the ο¬eld. For instance, they are brieο¬y touched upon by Carr and Wu [2004] as an activity process for generating random time. Their use has not been appreciated in the ο¬eld perhaps due to lack of an eο¬cient nu- merical algorithm to supplement their semi-analytical results. The present article introduces a convenient formulation of such processes, CBI processes in general, in the form of pure- jump processes of inο¬nite activity. The formulation admits an eο¬cient simulation algorithm that enables an extensive investigation of their properties. The algorithm is also adaptable to the case of standard mean reverting processes (Ornstein-Uhlenbeck-Type processes) driven byπΌβstable processes, or LΒ΄evy processes of inο¬nite activity.
Section 1 introduces the πΌβroot process, CBI process in general, in the form of a mean- reverting pure-jump process of inο¬nite activity and presents semi-analytical solutions for the implied term structures and the Laplace exponents. Section 2 presents closed form expressions for the Laplace exponents in some special cases. Section 3 presents an eο¬cient Monte Carlo simulation algorithm that enables a numerical investigation of the process.
Section 4 discusses the simulation results. Semi-analytical solutions are derived in Appendix A. The results of a numerical investigation are presented in Figures 1-10.
1 Alpha-Root Process
Let us start with the following pure jump process for a positive stochastic variable π(π‘), ππ(π‘) = [π(π‘)βππ(π‘)]ππ‘+
β« β
π§=0
β(π§/π(π‘))ππ(ππ§, π‘). (1) Hereππ(ππ§, π‘) = ππ(ππ§, π‘)βππ§ππ‘whereπ(ππ§, π‘)s are independent Poisson processes. Pro- cessπ(ππ§, π‘) is of intensityππ§ and is associated with the interval (π§, π§+ππ§). Ifπ(ππ§, π‘) jumps up by one at time π‘, ππ(ππ§, π‘) causes π(π‘) to jump up by β(π§/π(π‘β)) where π‘β is just prior to π‘. We may refer to β(π₯) as the jump function. It is taken to be nonnegative, integrable from π₯ = 0, going to zero as its argument π₯ β β. π(ππ§, π‘) is the compensated Poisson process (a Martingale). Parameter π is the mean reversion rate. Drift π(π‘) is assumed to be positive. Note that the total intensity of the Poisson processes is inο¬nite and hence the stochastic process is of inο¬nite activity (however, eο¬ective intensity depends on the jump function and is not necessarily inο¬nite).
An attractive feature of the above process is that it is an aο¬ne model, just as the well- known square-root process is. Note that process (1) is written in somewhat an unconventional way. It is usual to regard jump β as an independent variable with the Poisson intensity ππ§ = (ππ§/πβ)πβ giving rise to an intensity density β£ππ§/πββ£ called the LΒ΄evy density. Working with the jump function β(π₯) has provided us with a convenient formulation of an aο¬ne
process, in particular a CBI process (for constant π(π‘), that could also have square-root diο¬usion and πβindependent nonnegative jump component), in the form of a stochastic diο¬erential equation that forms the basis of a simulation to be discussed later.
Being an aο¬ne model, process (1) admits semi-analytical results for the implied term structures as well as for the characteristic exponents for their associated distributions. The following result is derived in Appendix A,
Eπ‘ {
exp [
β
β« π
π‘
ππ π’(π βπ )π(π ) ]}
= exp [
β
β« π
π‘
ππ π(π )π΅(π βπ )βπ΅(π βπ‘)π(π‘) ]
, (2) where π’(π) is some deterministic function and π΅(π), satisfyingπ΅(0) = 0, is a solution of
ππ΅(π)
ππ +ππ΅(π) = π’(π) +
β« β
0
ππ₯{1ββ(π₯)π΅(π)βexp [ββ(π₯)π΅(π)]}. (3) Result (2) features the aο¬ne property, the expression within square brackets being related aο¬nely toπ(π‘). For term structure modeling, one is interested in solving the above equation with π’(π) = 1. If interested in the Laplace transform Eπ‘{exp [βπ’π(π)]} of the probability density function of π(π), or its negative logarithm known as the Laplace exponent, the equation is solved in the absence of π’(π), but under the initial conditionπ΅(0) =π’.
The above result is for a general jump function β(π₯). For β(π₯) = ππ₯β1/πΌ, 1 < πΌ < 2, we have β(π§/π)βπ1/πΌ and (1) may be referred to as anπΌβroot process. Equation forπ΅(π) then becomes
ππ΅(π)
ππ +ππ΅(π) = π’(π)βππΌ[π΅(π)]πΌ, 1< πΌ <2,
= π’(π)βππ΅(π) lnπ΅(π), πΌ= 1. (4) where π is π[πΌΞ(βπΌ)]1/πΌ for 1 < πΌ < 2 and is π for πΌ = 1. Equation for πΌ = 1 is also presented above, though it needs to be treated as a special case. For the Laplace exponent, the above can be solved with π’(π) = 0 and π΅(0) =π’ to obtain
π΅(π) = πβππ {
π’β(πΌβ1)+ππΌ π
[1βπβ(πΌβ1)ππ]
}β1/(πΌβ1)
, 1< πΌ <2,
= exp[ πβππ(
lnπ’+ π π
)βπ π
], πΌ = 1. (5)
Case πΌ <1 turns out to be inconsistent. These results have a limit as πΌβ2 (given a ο¬xed π) to correspond to the case of the square-root process. Closed form expressions for the Laplace exponent can be obtained in some special cases as discussed in the next section.
Drift π(π‘) has been assumed to be positive. This ensures that the origin is inaccessible, that the probability density of π(π) as π(π) β 0 goes to zero. This can be examined, as usual in Laplace transforms, by looking at the π’ β β limit of π’Eπ‘{exp [βπ’π(π)]}. The leading contribution comes from the integral in (2) near π =π,
π’Eπ‘{exp [βπ’π(π)]} βΌπ’exp [
βπ(π) π’2βπΌ (2βπΌ)ππΌ
]
, as π’β β. (6)
Given π(π‘) > 0, this goes to zero as π’ β β. For πΌ = 2, one obtains the well-known requirementπ(π‘)> π2 (volatility of the square-root process is πβ
2 in our scale convention).
As forπΌ= 1, π΅(π)β βasπ’β β for allπ so that the above quantity goes to zero for any π(π‘)β₯0 (in this case, π(π‘) can be zero).
The πΌβroot process can be viewed as being driven by an πΌβstable LΒ΄evy process. This is analogous to the square root process being driven by the Brownian motion. To see this, consider small π = π β π‘ when π΅(π) β (1βππ)π’ β ππΌπ π’πΌ and the Laplace exponent approximates to
[π(π‘) + (π(π‘)βππ(π‘))π]π’βππΌπ(π‘)π π’πΌ. (7) The π’πΌ term is the Laplace exponent of a stable distribution of indexπΌ and skew parameter one (maximally skewed to the right) with zero location, the term linear inπ’arising from the deterministic part of theπβprocess. Its scale parameter isπ(π(π‘)π)1/πΌ(times [βcos(ππΌ/2)]1/πΌ to be exact), as expected with theπΌβroot of π(π‘) attached (similar analysis can be done for πΌ= 1). Given the above inο¬nitesimal result, one can indeed recover the full Laplace exponent using the law of iterated expectations. Note that inο¬nitesimally, theπΌβroot process can be viewed as being driven by a time-scaled stable process, π getting eο¬ectively scaled by π(π‘).
This is a stochastic scaling of time, scaling by the stochastic process π(π‘) itself. This gives us an alternate view of process (1) for generalβ(π₯) as well, providing a relationship between CBI processes and LΒ΄evy processes (known as Lamperti representation).
The expression for term structure in (2) involves convolution of π(π ) and π΅(π ) (consider π‘ = 0). When modeling term structure models, say for interest rates or credit spreads, one approach is to imply the drift π(π‘) from the given data on discount factors or survival probabilities as the case may be. If this deconvolving procedure is not convenient, one may consider the well-known approach in aο¬ne modeling of working with a constantπ, but with the stochastic variable π(π‘) related to the variable of interest by a deterministic shift that is implied from the given data (see Brigo and Alfonsi (2005) for such an approach with the square root process).
2 Laplace Exponents
The Laplace exponent of the distribution of π(π) can be obtained given the solution (5) for π΅(π). For constant drift π(π‘) =π and for 1< πΌ <2, this gives for the exponent
ππ πππ
β« 1+ππ’1/π
1
ππ₯π₯βπ(
1 +ππ’1/π βπ₯)πβ1
+π(π‘)πβπ(πβπ‘)π’
(1 +ππ’1/π)π , (8) whereπ = 1/(πΌβ1), π=ππΌ/π and π=π(1βπβ(πΌβ1)π(πβπ‘)). The integral can be expressed in terms of incomplete beta functions. For small π’, the exponent has the expansion
[π
π(1βπ ) +π(π‘)π ]
π’β { π
ππΌ[π(1βπ )βπππ ] +πππ(π‘)π }
π’πΌ, (9)
whereπ =πβπ(πβπ‘). This gives the mean, and the scale parameter for the largeπ(π) behavior (nonanalytic π’πΌβbehavior as π’β0 indicates that theπ(π)β β tail is similar to that of a
stable distribution of index πΌ). Closed form expression for the exponent can be obtained if π= 0, that reads
ππ’2βπΌ (2βπΌ)ππΌ
[1β(
1 +ππ’πΌβ1)β(2βπΌ)/(πΌβ1)]
+ π(π‘)π’
(1 +ππ’πΌβ1)1/(πΌβ1), (10) where π = (πΌβ1)ππΌ(π βπ‘). If π β= 0, closed form expressions can be obtained for some special values ofπΌ. For the limiting case of πΌ= 2, we obtain the well-known result
π
π2ln(1 +ππ’) + π(π‘)πβπ(πβπ‘)π’
1 +ππ’ , (11)
where π = (π2/π)(1βπβπ(πβπ‘)). This is the exponent of the non-central chi-square distri- bution (volatility of the square-root process isπβ
2). For πΌ= 3/2, one obtains 2π
ππ2 {πβ
π’(1 +πβ π’) 1 +πβ
π’ βln(
1 +πβ π’)
}
+π(π‘)πβπ(πβπ‘)π’ (1 +πβ
π’)2 , (12)
where π=π3/2/π and π=π(1βπβπ(πβπ‘)/2). For πΌ= 4/3, the exponent is 3π
ππ3
{ππ’1/3(1 +ππ’1/3) π(π’)
[π 2π’1/3
(
1 + πβπ(πβπ‘)/3 π(π’)
)
β1 ]
+ ln (π(π’)) }
+ π(π‘)πβπ(πβπ‘)π’
(π(π’))3 , (13) where π=π4/3/π and π=π(1βπβπ(πβπ‘)/3) and π(π’) = 1 +ππ’1/3. Another integrable case is πΌ= 5/3 that gives
3π ππβπ
{βππ’1/3π (π’)
β1 +ππ’2/3 βSinβ1
[βππ’1/3π (π’) 1 +ππ’2/3
]}
+π(π‘)πβπ(πβπ‘)π’
(1 +ππ’2/3)3/2. (14) Here π=π5/3/π, π=π(1βπβ2π(πβπ‘)/3) and π (π’) =β
1 +ππ’2/3βπβπ(πβπ‘)/3. Closed form expressions can be obtained more generally for πΌ= 1 + 2/π whereπ β₯2 is an integer.
Closed form expressions for the exponent can also be obtained for certain time-dependent drifts. For instance, consider a time-dependence of the form π(π‘) = ππβπ ππ‘ given some constant π . The exponent in integral form then reads
πππβπ πππ’π ππ(1βπ )π
β« 1+ππ’1/π
1
ππ₯π₯βπ(
1 +ππ’1/πβπ₯)(1βπ )πβ1
+π(π‘)πβπ(πβπ‘)π’
(1 +ππ’1/π)π , (15) where as before π = 1/(πΌ β 1), π = ππΌ/π and π = π(1β πβ(πΌβ1)π(πβπ‘)). Closed form expression can be obtained for π = 2βπΌ,
ππβ(2βπΌ)πππ’(2βπΌ) (2βπΌ)ππΌ
[1β(
1 +ππ’πΌβ1)β(2βπΌ)/(πΌβ1)]
+ π(π‘)πβπ(πβπ‘)π’
(1 +ππ’πΌβ1)1/(πΌβ1). (16) Closed form expressions can also be obtained for some other choices of π , for instance when (1βπ )π is a positive integer.
3 Monte Carlo Simulation
Process (1) is of inο¬nite activity as presented. The integral over π§ needs to be cut oο¬ at the higher end to render the total intensity of the Poisson processes ο¬nite for simulation purpose.
This can be done by forcingβ(π₯) = 0 for π₯ > π given a suο¬ciently largeπ. Process (1) can now be viewed as being driven by a compound Poisson process of stochastic total intensity π(π‘)π. It can be simulated starting with a more convenient form,
π[π(π‘)βππ(π‘)] =βππ[π(π‘)βππ(π‘)]ππ‘+
β« π(π‘)π
π§=0
β(π§/π(π‘))ππ(ππ§, π‘). (17) Hereππ =π+β«π
0 ππ₯β(π₯) andππ is introduced viaπ(π‘) =πππ(π‘)/ππ‘+ππππ(π‘). Since π(π‘) is taken to be positive, ππ(π‘) solves to be positive. ππ(0) can be conveniently chosen, say as π(0) or π(0)/ππ. The algorithm reads as follows.
1. Set π‘π = 0 and π=π(0).
2. Draw an independent exponentially distributed unit mean random number π£. Setπ‘to the next event arrival time π‘π+π£/π whereπ =ππ, or the time horizon whichever is earlier.
3. Update π to πβ given by
πβ= (πβππ(π‘π))πβππ(π‘βπ‘π)+ππ(π‘). (18) 4. If π‘ is the time-horizon, go to step 6.
5. Draw an independent uniformly distributed random number π€β[0,1]. Update πβ to π =πβ+β(π₯), whereπ₯=π€π/πβ. (19) Note thatβ(π₯) = 0 if π₯ > π. Set π‘π =π‘ and go to step 2.
6. Collect this sample or value a derivative. For the next scenario, go to step 1.
7. From all the samples thus obtained, determine the distribution, or average the values to obtain a price for the derivative.
An attractive feature of the algorithm is that it does not involve discretization of time.
Some improvements are possible to ensure thatπ β₯π(π‘)π in between Poisson events ifππ(π‘) increases withπ‘ and can makeπβ larger thanπ before the next event arrival time. Note that, since jumps are nonnegative, π(π‘) never goes below ππ(π‘) (consider ππ(0) = π(0)). Hence, because ππ(π‘)> πβ(π‘) for any ο¬niteπ (and π‘ > 0), to sample π(π‘) close to its lower bound of πβ(π‘), π will have to be very large. For the πΌβroot process,πβ(π‘) is zero and there will always be some region left unsampled near zero for any ο¬nite π. This deο¬ciency is corrected in the updated algorithm discussed below.
For β(π₯) = ππ₯β1/πΌ, 1 < πΌ < 2, there is an issue of convergence. The π₯βintegral in (3), limited to π₯β€π, can be approximated as
βπΌΞ(βπΌ)(ππ΅)πΌ+ πΌ
2(2βπΌ)(ππ΅)2π1β2/πΌβ πΌ
6(3βπΌ)(ππ΅)3π1β3/πΌ+πͺ(
(ππ΅)4π1β4/πΌ) .
Note that, as πΌβ2, the second term tends to be of the same order as the leading contribu- tion. This makes our Monte Carlo not useful nearπΌ= 2. Fortunately, there is an interesting solution. Consider extending process (1) to include another set of Poisson processes. If
identical to the ο¬rst, but with its jump functionβ(π¦) = ππ¦β1/π for some parametersπ,π and cutoο¬ π, this adds a π¦βintegral to (3) that can be approximated as above. Note that the sign of the second term in its expansion can be made negative by choosing π >2, orπ large enough to keep (ππ΅)π term farther away. Any such π could be chosen, in fact,π =β turns out to be a good choice. For π =β, β(π¦) = π for π¦β€π and zero otherwise, and the added process is eο¬ectively just one Poisson process. Its π¦βintegral is (1βππ΅βπβππ΅)π that can be expanded in powers ofππ΅. Parameterπ can be chosen so as to cancel the troubling term.
The π₯ and π¦βintegrals then together get approximated to βπΌΞ(βπΌ)(ππ΅)πΌ.
However, convergence is still not satisfactory, and the issue of the unsampled region near zero remains. Hence, consider extending process (1) with one more Poisson process with its jump function β(π¦) =βπfor π¦β€π and zero otherwise. It is now possible to chooseπ andπ to cancel both the (ππ΅)2 and (ππ΅)3 terms. The equations for π and π turn out to be cubic that can be solved to obtain
π=ππ(π +π)πβ1/πΌ, π=ππ(π βπ)πβ1/πΌ, (20) where
π =β
1/2βπ2, π = cos((π+π)/3), π= cosβ1(π/π3), π= πΌπ
(3βπΌ)π, π =
β πΌπ
(2βπΌ)π . (21) As long as π /π β€πΌ(3βπΌ)2/(2βπΌ)3, this gives a solution π β₯ πβ₯ 0. To keep the higher order terms introduced by the added processes small, π should not be too small relative to π. The next correction term is then of πͺ(π1β4/πΌ). The region near zero now gets sampled because of negative jumps introduced. As one gets closer toπ= 0, the total Poisson intensity becomes small, and hence the likelihood of getting into negative πβvalues is small.
Changes to Monte Carlo are straightforward. There is an additional positive contribution (πβπ)π to ππ. Total Poisson intensity is now ππ + 2ππ where ππ =ππ and ππ = ππ. Further in step 5, the original process is chosen with probability π/(π+ 2π) and the two added processes with probabilities π /(π + 2π) each, and an appropriate jump is added to πβ (based on π₯ =π€ππ/πβ or π¦ = π€ππ/πβ). If π does end up negative after adding βπ in step 5, it is set to zero (or inο¬nitesimally small). For the present simulation results, π is chosen to be equal to π. To improve eο¬ciency, Sobol sequences are used to generate each of the independent random numbers.
As πΌ β 2, π = π[πΌΞ(βπΌ)]β1/πΌ tends to zero for a given π, but π and π tend to a nonzero value ensuring that the square root process is simulated appropriately in the limit as trinomial branching. For processes with generic jump functions, there can be a similar issue of convergence depending on the behavior ofβ(π₯) asπ₯β β, and a similar approach to convergence can be attempted. The algorithm is also adaptable to the case of standard mean reverting πΌβstable LΒ΄evy processes, or more general LΒ΄evy processes (Ornstein-Uhlenbeck- Type processes) of inο¬nite activity withπβindependent jump functions, extended to include negative jumps if desired. The analysis of section 1 can be carried through to obtain the well- known results. Theπ₯βintegral then appears in an equation containing the drift term and, for simulation purpose, the process can be rewritten with a cutoο¬ introducing an appropriately redeο¬ned drift term if necessary. In this context, the issue of convergence was addressed in Asmussen and RosiΒ΄nski (2001) with the addition of a Brownian component that eο¬ectively cancels out the (ππ΅)2 term.
4 Simulation Results
Results of the Monte Carlo simulation for constant driftπ and a choice of other parameters are presented Figures 1-10 (π‘ is set to zero). Figures 1-5 present the dependence of the probability distribution of π(π) at π = 5 on πΌ, π, π and π. Figure 6 shows the dependence onπ itself. As can be seen from Figure 7, π need not be too large. To understand the order of magnitude of π, note that the total intensity of Poisson processes starts oο¬ at 3π(0)π that is about 10 for π(0) = 0.03 and π = 100, and corresponds to a time-step of about 0.1.
To conο¬rm the accuracy, the Laplace exponent is computed and displayed in Figure 8 for πΌ= 3/2,5/3 and 2 for which closed form expressions are available from section 2.
An usual approach to understanding the distribution of a positive random variable is to compare it to a lognormal one. This can be done by computing the implied Black-Scholes volatility for a call or a put option onπ(π) at various strikes, ignoring discounting and setting the underlying to E0(π(π)). The resulting volatility smile is plotted in Figure 9 for diο¬erent values of πΌ. Figure 10 shows its dependence on π. The smile features are encouraging and further study is needed to conο¬rm their applicability.
A Semi-Analytics
Because aο¬ne processes have been well-studied, analytics of an πΌβroot process can be written down as a special case. However, for our purpose, it is simpler and more illuminating to derive the same starting with the pure-jump process
ππ(π‘) = [π(π‘)βπππ(π‘)]ππ‘+
β« β
π§=0
βπ(π§/π(π‘))ππ(ππ§, π‘). (22) Here βπ(π₯) = 0 for π₯ > π given a large π and βπ(π₯) = β(π₯) for π₯ β€ π. This eο¬ectively cuts oο¬ the integral overπ§ at the higher end ensuring that the total intensity of the Poisson processes is ο¬nite. The object of interest is the following expectation value
πΉπ(π(π‘), π‘)β‘Eπ‘
{ exp
[
β
β« π
π‘
ππ π’π(π )π(π ) ]}
. (23)
Its diο¬erential can be written down using Itoβs calculus leading to
βπΉπ
βπ‘ + (πβπππ)βπΉπ
βπ βπ’πππΉπ +π
β« β
0
ππ₯[πΉπ(π+βπ(π₯), π‘)βπΉπ(π, π‘)] = 0. (24) Integration variable π§ is scaled to π₯=π§/π(π‘). The above can be solved with the ansatz
πΉπ(π(π‘), π‘) = exp [βπ΄π(π‘)βπ΅π(π‘)π(π‘)]. (25) Equating coeο¬cients of πΉπ independent ofπ and those linear in π separately gives
ππ΄π(π‘)
ππ‘ +π(π‘)π΅π(π‘) = 0, ππ΅π(π‘)
ππ‘ βπππ΅π(π‘) +π’π(π‘) +
β« π
0
ππ₯{1βexp [ββ(π₯)π΅π(π‘)]} = 0. (26)
Consider now π’π(π‘) = π’(π) as a function of π = π βπ‘ only. Then π΅π(π‘) = π΅(π) is also a function of π only, satisfying π΅(0) = 0 and the diο¬erential equation
ππ΅(π)
ππ +πππ΅(π) =π’(π) +
β« π
0
ππ₯{1βexp [ββ(π₯)π΅(π)]}. (27) With β(π₯) assumed to go to zero as π₯β β, the integrand above goes to zero as β(π₯)π΅(π), so that the above equation tends to be independent of π for large π if πππ/ππ =β(π).
A choice for ππ with such a large π behavior is ππ =π+β«π
0 ππ₯β(π₯) (assuming β(π₯) is integrable from π₯= 0). Equation for π΅(π) then reads as in (3) in the limit π β β. Given a solution forπ΅(π) satisfying π΅(0) = 0, and π΄π(π‘) expressed as an integral ofπ΅(π), solution for πΉπ(π(π‘), π‘) is as given in equation (2).
If π’(π) = π’πΏ(πβ0+) where πΏ(π β0+) is a Dirac-delta function sitting just above π = 0, one obtains the Laplace transform Eπ‘{exp [βπ’π(π)]} of the probability density function of π(π), or its negative logarithm known as the Laplace exponent. For this, equation (3) is solved for π΅(π) in the absence of π’(π), but under the initial conditionπ΅(0) =π’.
For β(π₯) =ππ₯β1/πΌ, 1< πΌ < 2, equation for π΅(π) reads as in (4). The π₯βintegral in (3) isβπΌΞ(βπΌ)ππΌ[π΅(π)]πΌ. Note that β«π
0 ππ₯β(π₯) =ππΌπ(πΌβ1)/πΌ/(πΌβ1) diverges asπ β β, but gets absorbed intoππ. TheπΌ = 1 case is special. Theπ₯βintegral in (27) isβππ΅(π) lnπ΅(π) up to terms linear in π΅(π) that are taken care of by ππ =π+πln(π/π) +π(1βπΎ) where πΎ is the Eulerβs constant.
One may wonder whether an πΌβroot process can be deο¬ned for πΌ <1 as well. After all, the π₯βintegral in (27) is then ο¬nite as π β β and is βπΌΞ(βπΌ)ππΌ[π΅(π)]πΌ. However, the integral dominates the πππ΅(π) term as π΅(π) β 0, and solving for the Laplace exponent with π’(π) = 0 and π΅(0) =π’ yields a π΅(π) that does not go to zero as π’β0.
References
[1] S. Asmussen and J. RosiΒ΄nski (2001), βApproximations of small jumps of LΒ΄evy processes with a view towards simulationβ, Journal of Applied Probability 38, 482-493.
[2] J. Bertoin (2000), βSubordinators, LΒ΄evy Processes with no negative jumps and branch- ing processesβ, MaPhySto Lecture Notes, Series 8.
[3] D. Brigo and A. Alfonsi (2005), βCredit default swap calibration and derivatives pricing with the SSRD stochastic intensity model β, Finance and Stochastics 9, 29-42.
[4] P. Carr and L. Wu (2004), βTime-changed LΒ΄evy processes and option pricingβ, Journal of Financial Economics 71, 113-141.
[5] D. Duο¬e, D. Filipovic and W. Schachermayer (2003), βAο¬ne processes and applications in ο¬nanceβ, The Annals of Applied Probability 13, 984-1053.
[6] P. Tankov (2009), βPricing and hedging in exponential LΒ΄evy models: review of recent resultsβ, Lecture notes, available from http://people.math.jussieu.fr/βΌtankov/.
Figure 1: Plots of the probability density functions for πΌ = 1.65,1.80 and 1.95. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, π = 0.04, π = 0.01, π = 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is one million and cutoο¬ π is 100.
Figure 2: Plots of the probability density functions for πΌ = 1.20,1.35 and 1.50. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, π = 0.04, π = 0.01, π = 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬ π is 100.
Figure 3: Plots of the probability density functions for π = 0.03,0.04 and 0.05. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, πΌ = 1.80, π = 0.01, π = 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬ π is 100.
Figure 4: Plots of the probability density functions for π = 0.05,0.0 and β0.05. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, πΌ = 1.80, π = 0.04, π = 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬ π is 100.
Figure 5: Plots of the probability density functions for π = 0.003,0.006 and 0.009. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, πΌ = 1.80, π = 0.04, π = 0.01 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬ π is 100.
Figure 6: Plots of the probability density functions for π = 3,5 and 10. Other parameters chosen areπΌ= 1.80, π = 0.04, π = 0.01, π = 0.006 andπ(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬ π is 100.
Figure 7: Plots of the probability density functions for cutoο¬ π = 20,100 and 500. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, πΌ = 1.80, π = 0.04, π = 0.01, π = 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03.
Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000.
Figure 8: Plots of the Laplace exponents computed analytically and numerically for πΌ = 3/2,5/3 and 2. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, π = 0.04, π = 0.01, π = 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬ π is 100.
Figure 9: Plots of the volatility smiles for πΌ= 1.65,1.80 and 1.95. Other parameters chosen are π = 5, π= 0.04, π = 0.01, π = 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬π = 100.
Figure 10: Plots of the volatility smiles for π = 3,5 and 10. Other parameters chosen are πΌ = 1.80, π = 0.04, π= 0.01, π= 0.006 and π(0) = 0.03. Number of Monte Carlo scenarios is 100,000 and cutoο¬π = 100.