in the Chinese Buddhist Nunneries?
By Ann Heirman, Gent I. Introduction
All Buddhist traditions of legal texts (vinaya texts) explain how a young girl first has to become a probationer (siksamdnd) before she can receive the full ordination. Except for the Sarvästiväda and Mülasarvästiväda tra¬
ditions, this obligation is included in the eight 'fundamental rules' (guru- dbarma) accepted by Mahäprajäpaü as a condition to create a nuns' order (hhiksunïsamgha). 1 The probationary period lasts for two years, and as a rule starts at the age of eighteen. For married women, an exception is made:
they can ask for permission to study the precepts when they are only ten years old, or according to some interpretations after a marriage of ten years. 2 All vinayas contain specific regulations for this probationary period, but as we will see, these regulations raise a lot of questions. In one and the same tradition, many passages can be ambiguous or even contradictory. In addi¬
tion, on many rules and regulations for the probationer, the vinayas present striking differences. These differences were introduced in China at the time of the vinaya translations.
In the early fifth century, four full vinayas have been translated into Chi¬
nese. 3 Much later, in the beginning of the eighth century, the monk Yijing ttt# translated large parts of the Mülasarvdstivddavinaya (ffi^síni 'WtïW>
1 According to tradition, the first nun, the Buddha's stepmother Mahäprajäpaü, re¬
ceived the full ordination by accepting eight 'fundamental rules' (gurudharma). These rules structurally subordinate the nuns to the monks. As pointed out by U. Hü sken (1997a, pp. 346-360; 2000, pp. 46-58), the eight gurudharmas were probably finalized only after the coming into being of afull monastic career for women. They were meant to outline a pattern of conduct for future nuns. On these rules, which are similar in all vinayas, see, among others, A. Heirman 2002a, Part I, pp. 63-65.
2 Sec note 33.
3 In the beginning of the fifth century, four complete vinayas were translated into Chi¬
nese. In chronological order, these are: hnífiíí*Shisong lü(T. 1435),Sa rväs tivä davinaya ; Sifen lü (T.1428),Dharmaguptakavinaya; BMÍ^Wí$ Mohesengqi lü (T. 1425), Mahäsämghikavinaya; and ^1 ^ IS M SI ÏL 5t ffl-M isbasai bu hexi wufen lü (T. 1421), Mabisäsakavinaya .For details, see A. Yuyama 1979,andA. Heirman 2007.
Genbenshuoyiqieyou hu pinaiye, T. 1442-T. 1451)4, as well as other vinaya texts belonging to the same school. 5 In the meantime, however, the Dharmaguptakavinaya (HiMÍ Sifen lu) had been strongly stimulated by influential Buddhist masters, such as Daoxuan XËIl (596-667). Ca. 705-710, the latter vinaya was even imposed by imperial decree as the only vinaya to be followed in the Chinese empire. 6 The Dharmaguptakavinaya conse¬
quently became the reference point for monastic discipline in China. In the fifth to seventh centuries, though, there was not yet such a reference point.
Even worse, since in a very short time as many as four vinayas were trans¬
lated into Chinese, there was suddenly an overwhelming, but sometimes also confusing information on disciplinary matters. Consequently, a lot of ambiguous ideas on the probationary status at once arrived in China. Al¬
though this could have led to major problems of interpretation, the focus of the Chinese Buddhist monks and nuns concerned with the monastic career of women first turned to another point: the legal introduction of a nuns* or¬
dination in China. Since at the time of the first ordination of a Chinese nun in the middle of the fourth century, there were no foreign nuns in China, the ordination ceremony took place in the presence of monks only, contrary to the vinaya regulation that says that a nun first has to be ordained in the nuns' order, and only then in the monks' order. It gave rise to the question on the validity of the Chinese ordination ceremony. The problem was solved when ca. 433a second ordination of more than three hundred Chinese nuns was held, this time in the presence of an adequate quorum 7 of Sinhalese nuns able to assure a proper transmission of the rules for women since the time of the Buddha. 8As we will see, the question of the probationary status only
4 Of the Mulas arväs tivä davinaya , a Tibetan translation as well as many Sanskrit fragments are extant. For details, see A. Yuya ma 1979, pp. 12-33.
5 Besides the above mentioned vinayas, two major vinaya texts have survived in an In¬
dian language. The most important one isthe Theraväda vinaya written in Pali. Although at the end of the fifth century, aPâli vinaya was translated into Chinese, the translation was never presented to the emperor and was subsequently lost (see A. Heirman 2004, pp. 377-378; and 2007). The second text to have survived in an Indian language only, isthe chapter for nuns (bhiksun ïvib h añga) of the Mahâsâmghika-Lokottaravâdins, preserved in a transitional language between Prakrit and Sanskrit (G. Roth 1970, pp. LV-LVI). It has never been translated into Chinese.
6 Cf. A. Heirman 2002b, p. 414, pp. 419-423; and 2007.
7 According to all vinayas, a quorum of at least ten (in border areas five) fully or¬
dained witnesses is necessary to hold alegally valid ordination ceremony.
8 It is important to indicate that probably not all Chinese masters and nuns were of the opinion that there was a problem that needed to be solved. In fact, the first ordina¬
tion was never explicitly declared illegitimate by any Buddhist master. The vinaya master Gunavarman, who finally agreed to the second ordination, only said that this ordination ceremony would augment the value of the first one, without, however, invalidating the earlier ordinations (cf. Baochang llfP¡|[ca. 466-?], IL h: /bill Biqiuni zbuan, Biographies
played a minor role in the accounts of this event. It received a renewed atten¬
tion when the earlier mentioned Buddhist master Daoxuan ills' (596-667) started to write his vinaya commentaries. These commentaries acquired a prominent position and influenced the vinaya discussions in China for all centuries to come.
Today, the discussion on the position of women in the Buddhist samgba is again one of the major themes in the Buddhist communities. A full ordina¬
tion for women is only preserved in the Chinese Dharmaguptaka ordination tradition. It is most popular in Taiwan, where nuns play an important role in the Buddhist institutes. 9 In Southeast Asia, the nuns' ordination existed at least until the thirteenth century, but then died out10, while in Tibet it was never introduced. Still, more and more women of the Theraväda and Tibetan traditions seek to obtain the full ordination, and a few attempts have been carried out w ith the help of witnesses of the Dharmaguptaka tradition. 11 Many Buddhist masters, however, oppose these attempts, or hesitate to ac¬
cept them. The main question is whether nuns from one tradition, in casu the Dharmaguptaka tradition now followed by Mahäyäna Buddhists, can legally function as witnesses in a procedure leading to the (re-)introduction
ofNuns, T.2063,p.939c2Q-21,p. 941a2 1-22). For more details on the second ordination ceremony,seeR. Gunawardana 1988,pp. 39-55; A. Heirman 2001.
9 See, among others, M. Günzel 1998,pp. 53-56, p. 62.
10 The last referencetoTheraväda nuns isfound in Burmainthe thirteenth century. In Sri Lanka, the ordination probably died out in the eleventh century (R. Gunawardana 1988, p.33, pp. 37-39;P. Harvey 1990, p. 222; T. Bartholomeusz 1992,pp. 39-40; R. de Silva 2004, pp. 119-120).
11Since the beginning of the eighties, nuns of the Tibetan tradition have received the full ordination in Chinese monasteries (Y. Li 2000, p. 179). In 1988,women from different traditions have gathered in Los Angelesto receive the full ordination atthe Xilai Temple,
abranch of the Taiwanese Foguangshan monastery (Y.Li 2000, p. 179). The latter ordi¬
nation ceremony was the start of other international ordination gatherings conducted by nuns of the Dharmaguptaka tradition, not without any competition (between the People's Republic of China, Taiwan and Korea). A most ambitious gathering was an ordination ceremony held in 1998in Bodhgaya in India, again conducted by the Foguangshan mon¬
astery.It explicitly aimedat restoring the Tibetan and Theraväda ordination of nuns (Y.Li 2000, pp. 168-180; St. Chandler 2004, pp. 157-165). Based on this Bodhgaya ceremony, the Sinhalese Rangiri Dambulu monastery organized several ordination ceremonies for nuns (R. de Silva 2004, pp. 132-143).Seefurther (Tibetan tradition) H. Havnevik 1990, pp. 44-45, p.150, pp. 199-202; K. Gutschow 2004, pp. 169-173; (Theraväda tradition) R. Gombrich/G. Obeyesekere 1988,pp. 274-295;T.B arth ol o meusz 1992,pp. 46-55;
1996 [1994],pp. 165-169, pp. 181-190;R. de Silva 2004.T. Bartholomeusz (1996[1994], pp. 182-186) also reports on a controversial attempt by the Sinhalese Buddhist teacher Uttama Sädhuto re-introduce the nuns' ordination by taking Mah äp r aj äp at! 's ordination, which was based on the acceptance of the eight 'fundamental rules,' asa precedent. Ac¬
cording to Uttama Sädhu, Sinhalese women can do the same(see also R. Gombrich/G.
Obeyesekere 1988, p. 335).
of the full ordination for nuns in other traditions, in casu the Theraväda and Tibetan traditions. In this context, the correct application of vinaya regulations gets again full attention. One of the points of discussion is the probationary period. Although mentioned in the vinaya rules, it is not ap¬
plied in the present-day Dharmaguptaka nunneries. In an article written in 2000, one of the leading Taiwanese nuns, Shih Chao-Hui fflSffi 12, refers to a discussion in 1997 between the Taiwanese nuns and the Dalai Lama (as the main representative of the Tibetan masters) on the procedures followed in the Taiwanese nunneries. 13One of the points raised was the probationary period. According to Shih Chao-Hui, the Tibetan masters still underline this study period because they are of the opinion that the Chinese way of doing might not be fully in accordance with the vinaya regulations, thus making it impossible for the Chinese nuns to function as witnesses in any attempt to (re-)introduce a full ordination for women in other parts of the world. In a reaction, Shih Chao-Hui states that the period of two years of the siksamdnd was never a step in between a novice and a nun, but only a kind of testing period spent as a lay woman in order to find out whether or not one is pregnant. 14She further argues that since the pregnancy tests today are very practical, there is no longer any need for this testing period. In addi¬
tion, she strongly underlines that, as put forward in the vinayas (see further),
a probationer only has to follow six out of the ten rules of novices. Since it is not at all logical that a woman first has to follow ten rules, and then, on a second level, only six, the probationary period has to stand apart from the training of a novice. 15 She also points out that, contrary to the rules of
a novice, those of a probationer do not mention anything on the possession of money or precious things, which according to Shih Chao-Hui refers to the fact that a probationer was seen as a lay woman. 16She concludes that the
12 On Sum Chao-Hui, and especially on her protest against the eight 'fundamental rules/ see M. Bingenheimer 2004, pp. 131-142.
13 On this visit of the Dalai Lama to Taiwan, see also Y. Li 2000, pp. 186-187.
14 In accordance with the opinion of the Sarvdstivddavinaya , as repeated by several Chinese vinaya masters (see further).
15 This is also the main point in the argumentation of the Taiwanese nun Shih Juo- Hsüeh fiíí'f: (2000, pp. 406-453; 2003).
16 In this context, Shih Chao-Hui also refers to a few vinaya passages in which apro¬
bationer presents agift to another person. Since, according to Shih Chao-Hui, only lay women can present gifts, she considers this to bea clear proof of the fact that probationers have not gone forth. However, this argument has no solid basis. In fact, all members of the monastic community, including monks, nuns and probationers, are frequently represented by early Buddhist texts as fairly wealthy people. They are even quite often mentioned as donors to their own community (G. Schopen 1997, pp. 72-85). This is still more obvious from the many Indian donative inscriptions of the first centuries ad, that frequently name
step of a probationer was (and is) not obligatory, but that if it was applied, it concerned lay women who lived in the monastery. 17
Given the many different ideas on the probationary period expressed by Buddhist commentators since the time of the introduction of the vinayas in China, it is the aim of the present article to see how the regulations on the probationary period entered China and how in the course of time they were interpreted and possibly applied by the Chinese Buddhist masters. To this purpose, a detailed look at all vinaya regulations on the siksamdnd status imposes itself. Following the Chinese masters, we will use as a reference point the Dharmaguptakavinaya, while comparing it to the other Chinese vinayas for all relevant information. Although the Pali vinaya never reached the Buddhist vinaya commentators, the Chinese version of the fourth or fifth century Sinhalese commentary on it, the Samantapdsddikd, did.18 In our comparative study, we therefore also pay attention to the Pali vinaya. 19 The first part of the article traces the vinaya regulations for the probationer,
and formulates possible answers to all uncertainties that appear. In the sec¬
ond part, we focus on the Chinese Buddhist masters and their interpretation or application of these vinaya regulations.
It is important to underline that the above comparative approach to the study of the probationary period has to be applied with all possible caution.
In fact, when strictly interpreting the vinaya rules, vinayas can never, as rightfully pointed out by the Chinese monk Yijing (635-713), be inter¬
mingled. 20 This is the result of the gradual redaction of these legal texts: no matter to what extent they developed independently or in symbiosis with each other, at a certain point they were finalized as separate legal codices that mutually exclude each other. 21 However, when in the fifth century, four
individual members of the monastic community, monks and nuns, as donors. From the fifth century on, nuns are less represented (see G. Scho pen 1997, pp. 238-257).
17 Y. Li (2000, p. 171) points out that in several Taiwanese nunneries, aprobationary period is imposed, albeit preceding the novice ordination. She argues that this can be seen in some way as equivalent to the siksamdnd idea.
18 The Samantapdsddikd has been translated into Chinese by the monk Samghabhadra in 488-489 (Shanjian Iii piposha 9M,WtíWiP, T. 1462). For details on this text, see P.V.
Bapat/A. Hirakawa 1970; A. Heirman 2004.
19 Not taken into account isthe bhiksun ïvibhañgaof theM ahâ samghi k a- L oko11 aravâd a School, which has never been translated into Chinese (see also note 5).For the regulations of the Mahâsâmghika-Lokottaravâdins on the probationary status (very similar to those of the Mah as amgh ikavinaya),see É. Nolot 1991, pp. 14-19, pp. 391-395.
20 Yijing, f¥§íífIf fflWifll Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan, Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas, T. 2125, p. 205b28-c6.
21 Cf. IL Bechert 1982, pp. 67-68; 1993, p. 54; O. von Hinüber 1999, pp. 89-91; A.
Heirman 1999.
vinayas were translated into Chinese 22, the Chínese monasteries seem not to haven taken into account this mutual exclusion. Although all fifth cen¬
tury vinayas state that a legal procedure has to be carried out by a har¬
monious samgha (samagrasamgha) 23, implying unity in the recitation of the prdtimoksa at the posadha 24ceremony 25, attendance of all monks and nuns who are present in the legal district (sïmà)2(\ and a sufficient number of monks or nuns to perform a legally valid act, the early Chinese monaster¬
ies, in all probability, used several vinayas at the same time.27 This situation gradually changed when Daoxuan XËS (596-667) started to write his com¬
mentaries. In his MW¡ímW Xu gaoseng zhuan yFurther Biographies of Emi¬
nent Monksj he complains that the precepts that monks receive at their or¬
dination and the precepts that they later follow, do not tally with each other (T. 2060, p. 620b6, cl-2). He consequently argues that one should take one vinaya as the only reference point, in casu the vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka School, which, according to Daoxuan, lies at the basis of the first ordination introduced in China (T. 2060, p. 620c2-3) 28. This does not imply, however, that only this vinaya should be studied. As it is obvious in all of Daoxuan's commentaries, he extensively studied all vinaya texts. He hereby explic¬
itly emphasized that the Dharmaguptakavinaya is the basic vinaya text, but that, if needed, other vinayas can be consulted. 29 The principle is applied to all vinaya issues, including the topic of the present article, the probationary period. Therefore, in order to understand the Chinese view on this study period for women, we will cautiously follow Daoxuan's approach.
22See note 3.
23 P ä 1i V inaya , V i n I , p .316; Mah ïsàsakavinaya ,T. 1421,p. 161cl 7;Mahäsämghikavinaya , T. 1425, p. 422b9-14; Dharmaguptakavinaya, T. 1428, p.885cl4-15; Sar västivä davin aya , T. 1435, p. 220al3-14, c3-5.
24At this ceremony, held every fortnight, the prdtimoksa (listof precepts) is recited.
25Cf. H. Iiu-voN Hinüber 1994, pp. 219-226; H. Tieken 2000, pp. 2-3, pp. 10-11, p. 13,pp. 26-27.
26Any formal act has to be carried out within a well defined district (sima). In order to havea legally valid formal act, every monk or nun present inthat district has to attend the ceremony. SeeP.Kieffer-Pülz 1992,pp. 27-28.
27 Cf. A. Heirman 2001, pp. 296-297.
28Similarly also Daoxuan, |ZÜjf ffl-MS Ifll IS1íf $ Sifen lüshanfan buque xingshi chao, An Abridged and Explanatory Commentary on the Dharmaguptakavinaya (T. 1804,
p. 51c7-9).
29Daoxuan, T. 1804, p.2bl9-20 (cf. A. Heirman 2002b, pp. 412-413; and 2007).A bit later, the above mentioned monk Yijing unsuccessfully pleaded for another vinaya (the
M ülas arväs tivä davinaya) to become the basic one(A. Heirman 2007;J.R. McRae 2005, pp. 84-88).
II. The Vinaya Texts
1. Basic rales for the probationary period
As a condition for her ordination, the first nun MahäprajäpatT accepted eight 'fundamental rules' (gurudharma) to be followed by all women candidates
after her. One of these rales concerns the siksamdnd period. The Dhar- maguptakavinaya, T. 1428, p. 923b8-9, says:
ÄXj#sß*Äa« btm^^xmtmmwMMmmWímmr-nM,
cAfter
[a woman candidatefor the ordination] hasstudied the preceptsas asiksamdnd, she asks for the ordination in the bbiksusamgba. This rule always has to be honoured and can neverbetransgressed.'
In the 'chapter on nuns' (bhiksunïskandhaka), the vinaya further clarifies that a candidate first has to ask for the ordination in the bhiksunisamgha and then in the bhiksusamgha (pp. 924c7-925bl7). The text underlines (p. 924c7-9) that one can start the ordination ceremony only after the pro¬
bationer has studied the relevant precepts and only after the right age has been reached:
^Xmm^Mñ^mñ^+Wñ+^mm^Xñ, 1When [the candidate], as
a siksamdnd, has studied the precepts, and when she has reached the age of twenty or of twelve30 , one should give the ordination.'
In theory, it remains possible to speculate that the above only applies to those women who choose to become probationers before entering the nunnery.
Novices (srdmanerïs) would then choose a different way to obtain the full ordination. Still, the gurudharma rules have been imposed on Mahäprajäpaü as general rules for all women to come. It therefore seems most unlikely that this particular rule would refer to only one category of women, to the exclu¬
sion of those who do not want to become probationers. Also other vinayas point into the same direction:
- Pali vinaya, Vin II, p. 255, 19-21: dve vassdni chasu dhammesu sikkhitasikkhdya sikkhamdndya ubhatosamghe upasampadd pariye- sitabhd; ayam pi [dhammo sakkatvd garukatvd mdnetvd püjetvd ydvajïvam] anatikkamanïyo, 'When, as a probationer, she has trained in
the six rules for two years, she should seek ordination from both Orders.
This rule too is to be honoured [respected, revered, venerated, never to be transgressed] during her life' (LB. Horner, BD V,p. 355). 31
Incase of amarried woman (seenote 33).
Seealso U. Hüsken 1997a, pp. 352-354.
- Mahïsdsakavinaya, T. 1421, p. 185c23-24: j^Xf^M^ H SS B ÎË # ZI f$
fp 'h^Â/ii/È, £A siksamdnd, after she has studied the precepts for two years, has to receive the full ordination in both orders.'
- Mahdsdmghikavinaya, T. 1425, p. 474cl-2: ^^^M^M^MM^^íñ
Äil^^ Zl^í¿, 'This is called to receive the full ordination in the two orders (after) having studied the two precepts for two years. This is called the second fundamental rule.*
- Sarvdstivddavinaya, T. 1435, p. 345cl0 and Mülasarvdstivddavinaya, T. 1451, p. 351al-3, only refer to the obligation to (also) ask for the full
ordination in the bhiksusamgha, but do not refer to the siksamdnd period in the gurudharma rules.
The above Dharmaguptaka regulations seem to impose a study period on all women candidates aged eighteen. 32 This is similar to several other vi- nayas. 33 Still, no matter how unlikely this is, it cannot be fully ruled out that these regulations only apply to young women who have not yet gone forth, i.e. who were not novices. The latter hypothesis, however, is imme¬
diately contradicted by the description of the admission ceremony of a pro™
bationer. It clearly indicates that a girl can only become a probationer after she has been a novice: when she is eighteen years old, a novice humbly asks the bhiksunïsamgha three times to allow her to study the precepts for two years as a probationer (Dharmaguptakavinaya, T. 1428, p. 755c5-24 and
32 Or on married candidates aged ten (and more).
33 Except for the Mülasarvästiväda tradition, all vin ayas say that the probationary pe¬
riod starts at the age of eighteen (Pâli vin aya, Vin IV, pp. 327-328; Mahisdsakavinaya, T. 1421, p. 91b6— 12; M ah äs amgh ik avin aya , T. 1425, p. 471bl2fL; Dharmaguptakavi-
naya, T. 1428, p. 755c5-24 and p. 924al6-c4; Sar vastiva davinaya , T. 1435, p. 329bl6fT.).
An exception is made for married women: they can start the probationary period after ten years. Since in many texts it is unclear whether these ten years indicate the real age or the years of marriage, the latter regulation has given rise to discussion: in all prob¬
ability, the Mahdsdrnghikavin aya, T. 1425, p. 536a2-10 and the Dharmaguptakavi- naya, T. 1428, pp. 758c29-759b2 indicate the real age. The Pâli vinaya (Vin IV, pp. 321-322), the Mahïsdsakavinaya (T. 1421, p. 91al5-21) and the Sar vastiva davinaya (T. 1435, p. 325cll-24) have a more ambiguous rule (for details, see A. Heirman 2002a, Part I, pp. 82-88). The Mülasarvästiväda tradition is deviating from all other traditions and says that a girl of eighteen or a married woman of twelve can start the probation¬
ary period (T. 1443, p. 1004c8-10). In addition, the question remains what older women have to do. Do they also have to go through the siksamdnd period of study? Although this is never explicitly discussed in the vin ayas, the logical answer seems to be yes. This is clear from the fact that, except for the Pâli vinaya and the Dbarm agup takav in aya, all vinaya traditions clearly mention in their description of the full ordination ceremony that acandidate can only be accepted after having been through the probationary period (see further). In addition, as seen above, the gurudharma imposing the study period (in all vin ay as, but the Sarvästivdda- and M ülasa rvdstiva davinayas)is to all likelihood meant for all women, not only the younger ones.
p. 924al6-c4). The motion (jñapti) of the legal procedure goes as follows (p. 755cl3-16, p. 924a25-28): 'Sisters, let the samgha listen. The srdmanerï so and so now asks from the samgha two years of study in the precepts. The upddhydyinï 34 is the person so and so. If the time for the samgha has come, may the samgha then allow that one gives two years of study in the precepts to the srdmanerï so and so, whereby the upadhydyinï is the person so and so. That is the motion.' The other vinayas show a mixed picture. Some are similar to the Dharmaguptakavinaya, others are less clear:
- Pâli vinaya, Vin IV, p. 319: the samgha grants a probationer the right to study the precepts for two years.
- Mahtsdsakavinaya, T. 1421: no description of the ceremony, but the karmavdcand text (text on procedures) of the same school, T. 142 4 35, pp. 218b25-219al0, explicitly confers the two years of study to a srdmanerï (YP'MÎË shaminï).
~~ Mahdsdmghikavinaya, T. 1425, p. 471bl4-cl: the samgha grants the pro¬
bationary study period to a girl of eighteen ( I'Aßtiz).
- Sarvdstivddavinaya, T. 1435, pp. 326b27-327a5: the study period of two years is granted to a srdmanerï (^ii/Ë).
- Mülasarvdstivddavinaya, T. 1443, pp. 1004cl5-1005a2: the study period is granted to a srdmanerï (âRîK^C qiujinü).
The above implies that, at least according to several vinayas among which the Dharmaguptakavinaya, one first has to be a novice in order to become
a probationer. In theory, however, it does not necessarily imply that all nov¬
ices first have to become a probationer before they can be admitted to the full ordination ceremony. Still, as we will see, the vinaya precepts on the ordina¬
tion of women, as outlined in the hhiksunïvibhaùga yseem not to leave much room for any other interpretation than that a woman has to take three steps towards a full membership of the community: first she becomes a novice, then a probationer, and as a probationer she can undergo the full ordination ceremony. 36 Most of these precepts on ordination belong to the pdcittika (hereafter pac.)37 category, except for one precept that is considered by all vinayas to be a samghdvasesa (hereafter sam.) 38 (see further). Some of these pac. precepts give more specifications on the probationary period:
34 I.e. the teacher.
35 Translated into Chinese by AltongH; \>•'](workedca. 705-707,see P. Demieville/H.
Duri/A. Seidel 1978, p.235).
36 SeealsoA. Heirman 2002a, Part I, pp. 79-92.
37 Pdcittika, Pali pdcittiya and variants: an offence that needs to be expiated (A.Heir- man 2002a, Part I, pp. 141-147).
38 Samghdvasesa, Pali samghddisesa, an offence that leads to a temporary expulsion from the order.
- Dharmaguptakavinaya, päc. 121says that a nun who knows that a woman candidate is not fully twenty years old, but who still confers on her the ordination, commits a päc. (pp. 755a20-756al5). The story that intro¬
duces this precept gives a survey of two stages that precede the ordina¬
tion, i.e. the going forth and the probationary period. As said above, the probationary period explicitly follows upon the stage of a novice. Only as
a novice can one ask to become a probationer.
- Dharmaguptakavinaya, päc. 122 says that a nun commits a päc. in case she does not give two years of study of the precepts to a girl (itic tongnii) of eighteen, but still confers on her the ordination when she is fully twenty years old (p. 756al6-bl7). The commentary following the precept (p. 756b9— 11)makes clear that a girl of eighteen cannot be given the ordination without a prior probationary study period of two years:
&it£M^¥+;vm^-a^^ffiii^ÄÄ^piHmÄ^±MM^
Së, cIf a bhiksunï does not give two years of study to a girl of eighteen, but then confers on her the ordination, she [commits], as an upddhydyinï, a päc. at the end of the three karmavdcands.' 39 It is striking, however, that the precept does not say that a novice of eighteen ought to be given the probationary study period, but only mentions the term 'girl' (as op¬
posed to a married woman HfíMMÍ£ huijiafunü) 40 . So, in theory, it is not fully impossible to surmise that not all novices of eighteen fall under the rule. Still, given the fact that the rules given to Mahäprajäpati, including the rule on the probationary period, concern all women who follow in her footsteps (see above), and given the fact that the term 'girl* (m^C) is generally used in opposition to the term 'married woman' (iÈfMMiz) and never in opposition to the term novice,' the latter reasoning seems highly unlikely. The other vinayas point in the same direction, sometimes even more explicitly:
- Päli vinaya, päc. 63, Vin IV, p. 319, 33-35: yd pana bhikkhunï dve vassdni chasu dhammesu asikkhitasikkham sikkhamdnam vutthdpeyya, pdcittiyan ti, 'Whatever nun should ordain a probationer who has not
trained for two years in the six rules, there is an offence of expiation* (LB.
Horner, BD III, p. 366); päc. 72, Vin IV 328, 9-11: yd pana bhikkhunï paripunnavïsativassam kumdribhütam dve vassdni chasu dhammesu asikkhitasikkham vutthdpeyya, pdcittiyan ti, 'Whatever nun should
39 An ordination is conferred following the procedure of ajñapticatu rtbakarman , a formal act consisting of one motion (jñapti), three propositions (karmavdcana) , and a conclusion.
40 Dharmaguptakavinaya, T. 1428, p. 759a22-24: a married woman (wlMWik) of ten can receive two years of study in the precepts and receive the ordination when she is twelve years old. See also note 33.
ordain a maiden who has completed twenty years of age (but) who has not trained for two years in the six rales, there is an offence of expia™
don' (LB. Horner, BD III, p. 382). Also in this vinaya, the term 'girl' (kumärihhütä) is opposed to a married woman (gihigatä). 41 Interest¬
ingly, the commentary following the pac. precept 72 defines a 'maiden*
(kumärihhütä) as a novice (sâmanerï), thus implying that all novices of eighteen have to study two years before the full ordination.
- Mahïsdsakavinaya, T. 1421,pac. 113,p. 92a9-10: îr tt.lx/g|ä^^ 'M^i&
M^JicÂJfÎïèiÈlê, 'If a hhiksunï confers the ordination on a woman can¬
didate who has not completed the two years of study, she commits a pac.' 42 - Mahäsämghikavinaya, T. 1425, pac. 97, p. 535a8: if bt Ix M $f -III I ' He m k
^S^#jSMS^ÄÄ#^&Sc, 'If a hhiksunï, when a girl (mk) is twenty years old, but has not been given the rules (of a probationer), confers on
her the ordination, she [commits] a päc' On p. 534c5-6, the vinaya ex¬
plains the term 'girl' (ßl k) as someone who has never had sexual contact with a man.
- Sarvästivädavinaya, T. 1435: pac. Ill, p. 327cl7-18: ÎHtJxM^"?^-" -ilc 'f^Avill^^^^iÊÎë, 'If a hhiksunï does not give to her disciples two years of study in the six rules, but admits them in the order, she commits
a päc.'; päc. 121, p. 329b26^27:
SSÍÍ'^Jtáté, 'If a hhiksunï, when a girl (m k) is twenty years old, but has not studied the six rules (of a probationer) for two years, admits her in the order, she commits a päc'
- Mulasarvastivadavinaya, T. 1443: pac 116: p. 1006cl7-18: ^ÎMSÎf jË
^m^¥fc+^ll-a^AfeA^BPSffili#Mi&^ii, cIf a hhik¬
sunï knows that a girl (Jtic) is twenty years old but has not been given two years of study in the six rules and the six additional rules (of a pro¬
bationer), but still confers on her the ordination, she commits a päc.';
päc. 119, p. 1007b8^9: ^^^M^^A*fc^^\ÍÉ>S^Btí*ll
ifiWI iS'àèûâ/ËÂ, 'If a hhiksunï knows that a woman has not yet com¬
pleted the two years of study in the six rules and in the six additional rules, but still confers on her the ordination, she commits a päc' Just as the Mahäsämghikavinaya, the Mülasarvästivädavinaya (T. 1443, p. 1006c8-9) explains the term 'girl* (Mk) as someone who has never had sexual contact with a man.
41 Cf. U. Hü sken 1997a, pp. 258-260, p. 267.
42Also interesting in this context is the precept that says that a hhiksunï who confers the study of the (probationary) rules to a girl who isless than eighteen years old, commits apäc. (T. 1421, p. 91b6— 12).The commentary following this precept explicitly indicates that ayoung girl is awoman whohas notyet been together with aman (t^Ä ]Jj f, p. 91bl0).
In addition to the above precepts, two vinayas explicitly formulate that all female disciples/novices have to go through the probationary stage. The Mahïsdsakavinaya (T. 1421, p. 186bl4—18) writes that all disciples (HP) have to study the six rules of a probationer for two years before the full or¬
dination. The Sarvdstivddavinaya (T. 1435, p. 326bl7— 18) says: fit^H^II
M ." -iic ' r 1'/ \ ÍÍ nf£|J^ $gito Trom now on I order43 that a srdmanerï stud¬
ies the six precepts (of a probationer) for two years in order to know whether or not she is pregnant.*
To conclude, we can say that the Dharmaguptakavinaya states (1) that a probationer has to study two years before she can be ordained, (2) that one has to be a novice before one can become a probationer, and (3) that a girl always has to undergo the probationary period before she can be ordained.
Since the term 'girl' is opposed to the term 'married woman* and not to the term novice,' it is very improbable that we have to interpret the above differently than 'every girl of eighteen (and thus every novice of eighteen) has to undergo the probationary period before she can be ordained*. The latter is explicitly stated in the Pali vinaya, the Mahïsdsakavinaya and the Sarvdstivddavinaya .
2. Evolution of the probationary period
Vinaya texts have been gradually expanded until ata certain point they were finalized as legal codices that clearly identify the different vinaya tradi¬
tions. From that point on, additions or changes to any vinaya passage were no longer allowed. As pointed out by O. von Hinüber in a study on the Theravada Pdtimokkhasutta (1999, pp. 89-91), the expansion of the Pali vi¬
naya was done systematically, aiming at a full harmony between the differ- ent vinaya chapters. However, at the time the vinaya was closed, the proc¬
ess of harmonization of all passages was not yet finished, and differences remained. O. von Hinüber's study thus explains why the Pali vinaya is not fully consistent and shows signs of evolution that have not been written away by the systematizers of the vinaya. Such signs of evolution are appar¬
ent also in other vinaya traditions. As we will see, this is clearly the case for the rules on the probationary status.
The organization of the hhiksunïsamgha is based on that of the bhiksusamgha. At the beginning, the nuns probably just copied the monks' ceremonies of the going forth and of the ordination. Only later they intro¬
duced a stage in between. At first, this intermediary stage might not have been compulsory. Since, however, the vinayas do not mention that a woman
43The term |i (ting, Skt. anujänämi) often has tobe interpreted as 'I order that' (see H. Bechert 1968, p. 321; 1982, p. 63).
candidate can freely decide whether or not to study the precepts, it seems very reasonable to say that when the probationary period was introduced, it rapidly, if not immediately, became compulsory. Still, some vinaya passages seem not to have been adapted to the new situation, and a few remnants of the former stage can be found:
1) The Dbarmaguptakavinaya says that a nun who confers the ordination on a woman thief commits a sam. (pp. 719b7-720a5). The introductory story tells us about a woman thief who fled to the monastery and was rapidly admitted to go forth and to become a nun. A probationary pe¬
riod is not mentioned. When later, the king finds out where the woman took refuge, he cannot impose a punishment on her because she has be¬
come a member of the bhiksun is a mgha. Since it seems unlikely that the king needed two years (i.e. the length of the probationary period) to dis™
cover where the woman fled to, the introductory story points to the fact that the woman was ordained soon after she arrived at the monastery.
We thus have to conclude that at the time this sam. precept was made the probationary period did not exist or was not taken into account.
The same is true for most other vinayas. 44 The Mahdsdmghikavinaya (T. 1425, sam. 8, pp. 519c7-520bl4), however, mentions the probation¬
ary status in the commentary on the precept, and says that a teacher who accepts a woman criminal as a probationer commits a sthuldtyaya
offence45.
2) The Dharmaguptakavinaya, pac. 119 states that a nun commits a pac.
if she confers the ordination on a woman she knows to be pregnant (p. 754bl2-cl5). Since the probationary period is not mentioned in this context, it is clear that at the time this precept was issued, the study period did not exist or was not taken into account. The same is true for the precept on the nun who confers the ordination on a woman who is breast-feeding a child (pp. 754cl6-755al9). Also the other vinayas do not mention the probationary period in these contexts. 46
3) The legal procedure ofthe full ordination ceremony itself does not speak of a probationer asking for the full ordination, nor does it refer to a nov¬
ice, but it applies the procedure to 'a person' (Dharmaguptakavinaya, T. 1428, p. 757al2-c3; pp. 924c4-926a26). The motion goes as follows
44Pali vinaya, sam.2, Vin IV,pp. 225-227; Mahïsàsakavinaya , sam.4, p. 79b6-c24;
Sarvds tivd davin ay a, sam. 8, pp. 3Q9cl4-310bl8; Mülasarvästivä da v in aya , T.1443, sam. 10, pp. 935cll-936b2. For details, sec A. Heirman 2002a, Part I, pp. 79-80 and pp. 153-156.
45Lit. 'a grave offence/ an offence considered tobe slightlylessserious than apäräjika (leading to a permanent exclusion from the status of monk and nun) or a samghdvasesa (see note 38).
46For details, see A. Heirman 2002a, Part I, pp. 81-82.
(p. 757bl9-24; p. 925al3-17): 'Sisters, let the samgha listen. This person so and so asks for the ordination from the upddhydyinï 'so and so. This person so and so now asks for the ordination from the samgha. The hhiksunï so and so is the upddhydya. She, the person so and so, herself says that she is pure and that there are no impediments, that she is fully twenty years old, and that she has all the robes and the alms bowl. If the time for the samgha has come, may the samgha then allow that one con¬
fers the ordination on the person so and so, whereby the hhiksunï so and so is the upddhydya. That is the motion.' In itself, this legal proce¬
dure is not contradictory to the rules on the probationer. It is just strik¬
ing that it does not mention anything on this preliminary status. This is not the case in most other vinayas. In the Mahïsdsakavinaya (T. 1421, p. 188al5-23), the Mahdsdmghikavinaya (T. 1425, p. 473a4-18) and the Sarvdstivddavinaya (T. 1435, p. 333al9-b23), the ordination is also asked for ca person/ but the formal procedure of the ordination cer¬
emony includes the information that this candidate has gone through the period of two years of study (T. 1421, p. 188al7; T. 1425, p. 473a7, al2; T. 1435, p. 333a22, a29, b8, bl6-17). The same is valid for the Mülasarvästiväda tradition (cf. tlx Í *W"H uP 5" *M Jf^ Genben shuo yiqieyou hu baiyijiemo, a karmavacdnd text ofthe Mülasarvästivädins, T. 1453, p. 462b3-29). At least in the latter vinaya traditions, it is explic¬
itly indicated that an ordination can only be conferred on a woman candidate who has been a probationer.
4) It is also noteworthy that among the questions asked in the Dhar- maguptakavinaya to the candidate in order to find out whether or not there are impediments to the ordination, none refers to any ear¬
lier stages, neither the stage of a novice, nor the one of a probationer (T. 1428, p. 814cll-17). Again this is not the case in all vinayas. In the Mahïsdsakavïnaya (T. 1421, p. 187c28), in the Mahdsdmghikavinaya
(T. 1425, p. 472a28-29), and in the Sarvdstivddavinaya (T. 1435, p. 333al4-15), the candidate is asked whether she has completed the study period of two years.
In conclusion, except for the Dharmaguptakavinaya, all vinayas explicitly state that the ordination can only be conferred on a woman who has com¬
pleted the probationary period. Although the Dharmaguptakavinaya does not say it in that many words, the above shows that it is extremely unlikely that it defends a different position.
3. Questions on the probationary period
The above regulations do not always cover all questions that can possibly arise when the probationary period is put into practice. The following ques¬
tions regularly appear in Chinese commentaries, studies or discussions on the siksamdnd period. As the Chinese masters do, I have looked for possible answers in the different vinayas available to the Chinese:
1) Why has the probationary period been imposed?
Generally spoken, one should first refer to the same reasons that apply to all 'fundamental rules* (gurudharma rules)47: women are seen as a danger to the samgha, a danger that can only be guarded off by the eight funda¬
mental rules, that imply the inferiority of nuns towards monks, or, the con¬
trol of the monks' community over the nuns' community. Only the Dhar- maguptakavinaya has a more balanced view: it not only presents women as
a dangerous, weakening factor in the community, but also pictures them as beings who are themselves more vulnerable to danger than men are. The eight fundamental rules are seen in this vinaya as a bridge to help women to overcome the dangers of the world. 48
In addition, a few vinaya passages try to explain why a woman has to go through a probationary period. The Pali vinaya (Vin IV, pp. 318-320), the Mahisdsakavinaya (T. 1421, p. 92a7, p. 186bl4-15), and the Dharmaguptaka-
vinaya (T. 1428, p. 756al6-c25) underline that a probationer has to study the six rules of a probationer for a period of two years. If not, she will remain ignorant on what is allowable and on what is not, making it impossible for her to get an ordination. Somehow enigmatically, the Mahdsdmghikavinaya (T. 1425, p. 534cl2-18) 49forwards as reason for the probationary period the determination of the right age of the candidate. Only a candidate of twenty years old (when not married) can obtain the ordination. In order to be sure that sheis twenty years old, she first has to go through a probationary period of two years. Pregnancy control is given asreason in the Sarvdstivddavinaya (T. 1435, p. 326bl7-18). Finally, in the Mülasarvdstivddavinaya (T. 1443, p. 1004cl-10), the story seems to get a positive turn. The probationary pe¬
riod is presented as an upwards step towards ordination. Since one can only be ordained at a relatively late age, young women, who are actually fully ready to assume the tasks of a grown-up, are granted the possibility to gain
47 Except lorthe Sarvastiva da v in aya and theMu lasa rvas tiva davinaya ,the probation¬
ary period isimposed through agurudharma rule (seeabove).
48 T. 1428, p. 923bl9-2Q.SeealsoA. Heirman 2001, pp. 278-284.
49 SeealsoA. Hirakawa 1982, p.299.
more responsibilities at an earlier age than the ordination age. The full story goes as follows: the bhiksunisamgha is criticized because many women who do not have anything to rely on obtain the going forth. At first, they are unlucky and think of their relatives, but asnovices they become aware of the Buddhist rules and the unhappiness fades away. At that point the women ask for the full ordination. The bhiksunts tell them that they have to wait until they are twenty years old before they can serve a teacher and be ordained.
The novices complain that this takes too long. They say that at home they already served their husband or looked after the household. Thereupon, the Buddha allows a period of two years of study to married women aged twelve or to single women aged eighteen. Only after that period, they can obtain the full ordination. Why the ordination period takes two years and not three or one is never discussed in any vinaya.
2) Is the probationary period a step forwards?
During the two years of study, the probationer has to particularly take into account a certain number of special rules. The Pali vinaya, the Mahïsdsaka- vinaya, the Dharmaguptakavinaya and the Sarvdstivddavinaya mention six rules, the Mahdsdmghikavinaya eighteen, and the M ülasarvdstivddavinaya twelve. 50 According to A. Hirakawa 51, the six rules of the Pali vinaya and of the Dharmaguptakavinaya are probably the oldest ones. In the Dhar¬
maguptakavinaya, the first four of these six rules coincide with the first four pdrdjika rules for nuns: (1) sexual intercourse, (2) stealing (anything with a value of five coins or more), (3) killing and (4) lying about one's spiritual achievements. The other two rules are: (5) a probationer may not eat at an improper time, i.e. after noon, and (6) she may not drink alcohol. 52 In most
50 Pali vinaya, Vin IV, p. 319; M ahisdsakav in aya , T. 1421, p. 186bl6-18; Mahd¬
sdmghikavinaya, T. 1425, p. 471c2-15; Dharmaguptakavinaya, T. 1428, p. 924b6-c2;
Sarvds tiva clavin aya ,T.1435, p. 327a7-c2; Mülasarvdstivddavinaya, T. 1443, p. 1005a3-19.
In the Chinese context, the six rules of the Dharmaguptakavinaya are considered to be the point of reference. Often referred to is also the first rule of the Mahdsdmghikavinaya that states that aprobationer has to take a seat below the one of nuns and above the one of novices. For details, see A. Heirman 2002a, Part I, pp. 67-70.
51 A. Hirakawa 1982, pp. 53-54, note 17.
52 In the Pâli vinaya and in the MahIsdsakav inaya the order is parallel to the rules for novices: killing, stealing, sexual intercourse, lying, alcohol, and eating at an improper time. In the Sarvdstivddavinaya, the six rules coincide with the first sixpdrdjika rules for nuns: sexual intercourse, stealing, killing, lying, allowing a man with impure thoughts to touch her from below the hair till above the wrist and the knee, and doing eight wrong things together with aman with impure thoughts (all these things concern physical con¬
tact). The rules of the Mahdsdmghikavinaya and of the Mülasarvdstivddavinaya differ from both the pdrdjika rules for nuns and the rules for novices.
vinayaSj the probationer thus has to follow six rules, four less than anovice.
In this sense, it does not seem to be a step forward. In the Dharmaguptaka- vinaya, however, the latter conclusion is not that straightforward. The vinaya namely mentions that, apart from these six rules particularly to be taken into account, a probationer should also observe all the precepts for nuns, except for the precept on offering and accepting food with one's own hands (T. 1428, p. 755c23-24, p. 924c2-4). 53 This does not necessarily imply that her status is above the one of anovice. Just as a novice, she is not a full member of the community and she cannot participate in ceremonies reserved for nuns. In addition, if we take into consideration the full Dharmaguptakavinaya, it is clear that the rules that a probationer has to follow are in fact parallel to the rules for novices. The Dharmaguptaka bhiksun ïvibhanga namely mentions in the commentary that follows upon every rule for nuns whether or not this rule is also valid for novices and probationers. 54These commentary passages show no difference between these two categories: both always commit the same offence (a duskrta, ca bad deed*) for breaking exactly the same rules.
Parallel information can be found in the commentaries on the rules for nuns in the Mahïsdsakavinaya.
In conclusion, at least in the Mahïsâsaka- and Dharmaguptakavinayas, the difference between a novice and a probationer appears to be only formal.
Still, since the admission ceremony of a probationer 55 is a lot more elab¬
orated than the procedure of the going forth of a novice, the social rank of a probationer seems to be higher. 56Their rights and duties within the bhiksunïsamgha, however, are, according to the above two vinaya tradi¬
tions, essentially the same.
53 It seems likely that this exception has to be linked to the first pratidesaniya precept for monks (T. 1428, pp. 695cl7-696bl3), where it is said that a monk may not, with his own hands, accept food of a nun, except when he is ill or when the nun is one of his rela¬
tives. The commentary following the precept indicates that for a nun this is similar, i.e.
she may not, with her own hands, accept food of a monk. The precept also implies that a nun cannot place food in the hands of a monk, or vice versa. The D harmag uptakav inaya thus seems to point out that this rule isnot valid for aprobationer. For adiscussion, see A.
Heirman 2002a, Part I, pp. 71-73.
54 Sometimes the rules for nuns cannot be applied to novices or probationers. This is, for instance, the case for the rules that prescribe which pupil anun can accept and to whom she may grant the ordination.
55 Mahïsâsaka tradition, T. 1424, p. 218b25-cl0; Dharmaguptakavinaya, p. 755c7-23 and p. 924a25-b6.
56 This is also suggested by the Mahdsdmghikavinaya (see note 50) and by the
M ülas arväs tivä davinaya where the status ofa probationer ispresented asa step forwards to the full membership of the community (see above).
3) Do probationers live in the monastery just as novices do?
The admission ceremony, the obligation to follow all rules for nuns that are also applicable to probationers (Mah ïsâsakavinaya and Dharmaguptaka¬
vinaya)^ and the fact that the vinayas to all likelihood impose three stages leading to a full membership of the order (i.e.(1) the going forth, (2) a period of two years as a probationer, and (3) the full ordination), all suggest that a probationer is supposed to live in close connection with the nuns. Neverthe¬
less, she does not have the same responsibilities as a nun, since she cannot perform formal acts or ceremonies.
Another element that indicates that a probationer lives in the mo¬
nastic order, is the fact that most vinayas mention monastic measures to be taken against a probationer who breaks the rules. In case of a viola¬
tion against one of the first two (Mah ïsâsakavinaya , T. 1421, p. 5a26-27, p. 7al3-14), four (Dharmaguptakavinaya^ T. 1428, p. 572b2, p. 575b27-28, p. 577b5-6, p. 579a3, p. 714c6-7, p. 756cl0-17) or six (Sarvâstivâdavinaya, T. 1435, p. 327a5-c2) pârâjika rules for nuns 57 , a probationer as well as a nov¬
ice, has to be definitively excluded from the order. 58 The Mah ïsâsakavinaya and the Dharmaguptakavinaya further indicate that novices and probation¬
ers always commit a duskrta, ca bad deed/ i.e. a light offence, when they go against any of the other rules for nuns.
The hypothesis that a probationer can live together with lay people has, however, been suggested for the early Pali tradition by M. Wijayaratna (1991, p. 54) and by U. Hüsken (1997a, p. 265, pp. 273-274, and p. 460). For her hypothesis, U. Hüsken (1997a, pp. 273-274), mainly refers to the Pali vinayaj bhikkhunïvibhaûga ypac. 79:"ya pana bhikkhunî purisasamsattham kumârasamsattham can dim sokâvâsam sikkhamânam vutthâpeyya, pâcit- tiyan ti" (Vin IV, p. 334, 3-5), "Whatever nun should ordain a probationer who keeps company with men, who keeps company with youths, who
57 In addition, the commentary following upon the first pdrdjika rule for monks in the Pâli vinay amentions that aprobationer or a novice who consent to sexual intercourse should be expelled (Vin III, p. 40, 2-5; see also U. Hüsken 1997b, p. 95).
58 It seems unlikely that aprobationer oranovice excluded for having committed one of the pdrdjika offences ever again getsa second chance to obtain full membership ofthe nuns' order (see U. Hüsken 1997b, p. 107). This isexplicitly stated in the Dharmaguptakavinaya which checks, before the ordination ceremony, whether candidates have ever committed a pdrdjika offence (T. 1428, p. 814cl2-13; see also Mahisdsakavin aya,T. 1421, p. 188a29: has the candidate ever committed a serious offence; Mah as amgh ikavinaya,T. 1425, p. 472b3:
has the candidate ever transgressed the pure precepts for monks; and a karmavacdnd text of the Mûlasarvâstivâdins, T. 1453, p. 461c29: has the candidate ever committed aserious offence leading to her not being allowed to live in community). See further S. Clarke (2000) for a discussion on the possibility to keep some rights after an expulsion.
