Classical and Quantum Gravity
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Characterization of transient noise in Advanced LIGO relevant to gravitational wave signal
GW150914
To cite this article: B P Abbott et al 2016 Class. Quantum Grav. 33 134001
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Characterization of transient noise in Advanced LIGO relevant to gravitational wave signal GW150914
B P Abbott
1, R Abbott
1, T D Abbott
2, M R Abernathy
1, F Acernese
3,4, K Ackley
5, M Adamo
4,6, C Adams
7, T Adams
8, P Addesso
3, R X Adhikari
1, V B Adya
9, C Affeldt
9,
M Agathos
10, K Agatsuma
10, N Aggarwal
11, O D Aguiar
12, L Aiello
13,14, A Ain
15, P Ajith
16, B Allen
9,17,18, A Allocca
19,20, P A Altin
21, S B Anderson
1, W G Anderson
17, K Arai
1, M C Araya
1, C C Arceneaux
6, J S Areeda
22, N Arnaud
23, K G Arun
24, S Ascenzi
14,25, G Ashton
26, M Ast
27, S M Aston
7, P Astone
28, P Aufmuth
9, C Aulbert
9, S Babak
29, P Bacon
30, M K M Bader
10, P T Baker
31, F Baldaccini
32,33, G Ballardin
34, S W Ballmer
35, J C Barayoga
1, S E Barclay
36, B C Barish
1, D Barker
37, F Barone
3,4, B Barr
36, L Barsotti
11, M Barsuglia
30, D Barta
38, J Bartlett
37, I Bartos
39, R Bassiri
40, A Basti
19,20, J C Batch
37, C Baune
9, V Bavigadda
34, M Bazzan
41,42, B Behnke
29, M Bejger
43, A S Bell
36, C J Bell
36, B K Berger
1, J Bergman
37, G Bergmann
9, C P L Berry
44, D Bersanetti
45,46, A Bertolini
10, J Betzwieser
7, S Bhagwat
35, R Bhandare
47, I A Bilenko
48, G Billingsley
1, J Birch
7, R Birney
49,
S Biscans
11, A Bisht
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34, C Biwer
35,
M A Bizouard
23, J K Blackburn
1, L Blackburn
11, C D Blair
50, D G Blair
50, R M Blair
37, S Bloemen
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54, R Bonnand
8, B A Boom
10, R Bork
1, V Boschi
19,20, S Bose
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30, A Bozzi
34, C Bradaschia
20, P R Brady
17, V B Braginsky
48, M Branchesi
56,57, J E Brau
58, T Briant
59, A Brillet
52, M Brinkmann
9, V Brisson
23, P Brockill
17, A F Brooks
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Class. Quantum Grav.33(2016)134001(34pp) doi:10.1088/0264-9381/33/13/134001
0264-9381/16/134001+34$33.00 © 2016 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 1
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1,11, S E Zuraw
101and J Zweizig
1 (LIGO Scienti
fic Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration
)1LIGO, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
2Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
3Università di Salerno, Fisciano, I-84084 Salerno, Italy
4INFN, Sezione di Napoli, Complesso Universitario di Monte S.Angelo, I-80126 Napoli, Italy
5University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
6The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
7LIGO Livingston Observatory, Livingston, LA 70754, USA
8Laboratoire d’Annecy-le-Vieux de Physique des Particules(LAPP), Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS/IN2P3, F-74941 Annecy-le-Vieux, France
9Albert-Einstein-Institut, Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik, D-30167 Hannover, Germany
10Nikhef, Science Park, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
11LIGO, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
12Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, 12227-010 São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
13INFN, Gran Sasso Science Institute, I-67100 L’Aquila, Italy
14INFN, Sezione di Roma Tor Vergata, I-00133 Roma, Italy
15Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune 411007, India
16International Centre for Theoretical Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore 560012, India
17University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
18Leibniz Universität Hannover, D-30167 Hannover, Germany
19Università di Pisa, I-56127 Pisa, Italy
20INFN, Sezione di Pisa, I-56127 Pisa, Italy
21 Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
22California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92831, USA
23LAL, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS/IN2P3, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400 Orsay, France
24Chennai Mathematical Institute, Chennai 603103, India
25Università di Roma Tor Vergata, I-00133 Roma, Italy
26University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
27Universität Hamburg, D-22761 Hamburg, Germany
28INFN, Sezione di Roma, I-00185 Roma, Italy
29Albert-Einstein-Institut, Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
30APC, AstroParticule et Cosmologie, Université Paris Diderot, CNRS/IN2P3, CEA/
Irfu, Observatoire de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
31Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
32Università di Perugia, I-06123 Perugia, Italy
33INFN, Sezione di Perugia, I-06123 Perugia, Italy
34European Gravitational Observatory(EGO), I-56021 Cascina, Pisa, Italy
35Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
36SUPA,University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
37LIGO Hanford Observatory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
38Wigner RCP, RMKI, H-1121 Budapest, Konkoly Thege Miklós út 29-33, Hungary
39Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
40Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
41Università di Padova, Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, I-35131 Padova, Italy
42INFN, Sezione di Padova, I-35131 Padova, Italy
43CAMK-PAN, 00-716 Warsaw, Poland
44University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
45Università degli Studi di Genova, I-16146 Genova, Italy
46INFN, Sezione di Genova, I-16146 Genova, Italy
47RRCAT, Indore MP 452013, India
48Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
49SUPA, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK
50University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
51Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
52Artemis, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Observatoire Côte d’Azur, CS 34229, Nice cedex 4, France
53MTA Eötvös University,‘Lendulet’Astrophysics Research Group, Budapest 1117, Hungary
54Institut de Physique de Rennes, CNRS, Université de Rennes 1, F-35042 Rennes, France
55Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
56Università degli Studi di Urbino‘Carlo Bo,’I-61029 Urbino, Italy
57INFN, Sezione di Firenze, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
58University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
59Laboratoire Kastler Brossel, UPMC-Sorbonne Universités, CNRS, ENS-PSL Research University, Collège de France, F-75005 Paris, France
60Astronomical Observatory Warsaw University, 00-478 Warsaw, Poland
61VU University Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
62University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
63Center for Relativistic Astrophysics and School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
64Institut Lumière Matière, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR CNRS 5306, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
65Laboratoire des Matériaux Avancés(LMA), IN2P3/CNRS, Université de Lyon, F-69622 Villeurbanne, Lyon, France
66Universitat de les Illes Balears, IAC3—IEEC, E-07122 Palma de Mallorca, Spain
67Università di Napoli‘Federico II,’Complesso Universitario di Monte S.Angelo, I-80126 Napoli, Italy
68NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
69Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H8, Canada
70Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, People’s Republic of China
71Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
72The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
73National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City, 30013 Taiwan, Republic of People’s Republic of China
74Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales 2678, Australia
75University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
76Caltech CaRT, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
77Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information, Daejeon 305-806, Korea
78Carleton College, Northfield, MN 55057, USA
79Università di Roma‘La Sapienza,’I-00185 Roma, Italy
80University of Brussels, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
81Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 94928, USA
82Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
83University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
84The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
85The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA
86The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
87University of Sannio at Benevento, I-82100 Benevento, Italy and INFN, Sezione di Napoli, I-80100 Napoli, Italy
88Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ 07043, USA
89Università di Trento, Dipartimento di Fisica, I-38123 Povo, Trento, Italy
90INFN, Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, I-38123 Povo, Trento, Italy
91Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK
92National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181- 8588, Japan
93School of Mathematics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
94Indian Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar Ahmedabad Gujarat 382424, India
95Institute for Plasma Research, Bhat, Gandhinagar 382428, India
96University of Szeged, Dóm tér 9, Szeged 6720, Hungary
97Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott, AZ 86301, USA
98University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109, USA
99Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
100American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
101University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
102University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
103West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
104University of Białystok, 15-424 Białystok, Poland
105SUPA, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK
106IISER-TVM, CET Campus, Trivandrum Kerala 695016, India
107Institute of Applied Physics, Nizhny Novgorod, 603950, Russia
108Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Korea
109Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Korea
110NCBJ, 05-400Świerk-Otwock, Poland
111IM-PAN, 00-956 Warsaw, Poland
112Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
113Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
114Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Korea
115University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA
116ESPCI, CNRS, F-75005 Paris, France
117Università di Camerino, Dipartimento di Fisica, I-62032 Camerino, Italy
118Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA 70813, USA
119College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23187, USA
120Instituto de Física Teórica, University Estadual Paulista/ICTP South American Institute for Fundamental Research, São Paulo SP 01140-070, Brazil
121University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK
122IISER-Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal 741252, India
123Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, HSIC, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0QX, UK
124Whitman College, 345 Boyer Avenue, Walla Walla, WA 99362 USA
125National Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Daejeon 305-390, Korea
126Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY 14456, USA
127Janusz Gil Institute of Astronomy, University of Zielona Góra, 65-265 Zielona Góra, Poland
128Andrews University, Berrien Springs, 49104, USA
129Università di Siena, I-53100 Siena, Italy
130Trinity University, San Antonio, TX 78212, USA
131University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
132Kenyon College, Gambier, OH 43022, USA
133Abilene Christian University, Abilene, TX 79699, USA
134Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA Received 12 February 2016
Accepted for publication 29 April 2016 Published 6 June 2016
Abstract
On 14 September 2015, a gravitational wave signal from a coalescing black hole binary system was observed by the Advanced LIGO detectors. This paper describes the transient noise backgrounds used to determine the significance of the event (designated GW150914)and presents the results of investigations into potential correlated or uncorrelated sources of transient noise in the detectors around the time of the event. The detectors were operating nominally at the time of GW150914. We have ruled out environmental influences and non-Gaussian instrument noise at either LIGO detector as the cause of the observed gravitational wave signal.
Keywords: gravitational waves, detector characterization, GW150914
135 Deceased, May 2015.
136 Deceased, March 2015.
137 Deceased, May 2012.
Original content from this work may be used under the terms of theCreative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must
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(Somefigures may appear in colour only in the online journal)
1. Introduction
A gravitational wave signal, denoted GW150914, has been detected by the Advanced LIGO detectors [1]. The recovered waveform indicated the source was a binary black hole system with component masses36-+45
Mand29-+44M, which coalesced at a distance of410-+180160Mpc away from Earth. The significance of the GW150914 event was measured to be greater than 5.1σ, corresponding to a false-alarm rate of less than 1 event per 203 000 years [1]. The event, lasting 0.2s in Advanced LIGO’s sensitive frequency range, was detected in inde- pendent searches for modeled compact binary coalescences (CBCs) and for unmodeled gravitational wave bursts [2,3].
The US-based detectors, in Hanford, Washington(H1)and in Livingston, Louisiana(L1) jointly comprise the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO). The detectors are designed to measure spacetime strain induced by passing gravitational waves using a modified Michelson interferometer with 4km length arms, as described in[4–6]. The detectors were operating in their nominal configuration at the time of GW150914. The corresponding detector sensitivity is shown in figure 1; both detectors achieved a best sen- sitivity of ∼10−23 Hz-1 2 between roughly 50 and 300 Hz. Peaks in the strain-equivalent noise amplitude spectral density are due largely to mechanical resonances, mains power harmonics, and injected signals used for calibration. Non-stationarity in the detector noise manifests as variations in the level and shape of these sensitivity curves over time.
Even in their nominal state, the detectors’ data contain non-Gaussian noise transients introduced by behavior of the instruments or complex interactions between the instruments and their environment. For LIGO, the fundamental signature of a transient gravitational wave signal is a near-simultaneous signal with consistent waveforms in the two detectors. The rate of coincident noise transients between the independent detector data sets is estimated by the astrophysical searches using time-shift techniques[2,3]. A common time-shift method is to shift the data of one detector relative to the other detector’s data by a time interval sig- nificantly greater than 10ms, the maximum difference in signal arrival time between detectors. Coincident triggers in time-shifted data yield a distribution of background triggers produced solely by the chance coincidence of transient noise. This time-shifting of the data is performed many times to obtain a representative estimate of the expected rate of background triggers, as detailed in[2,7]. The significance of a gravitational wave event is a measure of the probability that it is a false detection due to coincident noise. We study the characteristics of background triggers as well as correlations between the gravitational wave strain data and instrument or environment signals to guide further detector improvements and increase the sensitivity of the searches.
GW150914 occurred on 14 September 2015 09:50:45 UTC, 28 days into the eighth engineering run(ER8)138, 3 days into stable data collection with an accurate calibration, and 4 days preceding the scheduled start of the first observing run(O1).
After the event was identified as a highly significant candidate, the software and hard- ware configuration of each LIGO detector was heldfixed until enough coincident data had been collected to set a sufficiently accurate upper bound on the false-alarm rate using the
138 Engineering runs 1–7 served to test hardware and software infrastructure from the stability of instrument performance to the output of the astrophysical searches. ER8 was thefinal engineering run, intended to provide a gradual transition between a test of the mature instrument and search configurations and the continuous operation of an observing run.
time-shift technique described above. It took roughly six weeks to collect the required∼16 d of coincident data because low noise operation of the detectors is disrupted by noisy envir- onmental conditions (such as storms, earthquakes, high ground motion, or anthropogenic noise sources). During this six week period we only performed non-invasive maintenance that was required for instrument stability.
The significance of GW150914 was calculated using data taken from 12 September 2015 00:00 through 20 October 2015 13:30 UTC. This data set was analyzed after removing time segments during which an identified instrumental or environmental noise source coupled to the gravitational wave strain signal. At these times, any triggered output of the astrophysical searches would likely be due to noise. These data quality vetoes were built on detector characterization efforts in earlier stages of testing and commissioning of the Advanced LIGO detectors, as reported in[8].
This paper summarizes detector characterization techniques for identification of transient noise(section2). We then present examples of transient noise couplings that can impact the detectors (section 3) and discuss techniques used to mitigate the impact of known noise sources (section4). We show that the selected analysis period provides an accurate estimate of the significance of GW150914 reported in [1] by discussing the stability of the search backgrounds, and presenting the impact of applied data quality vetoes relevant to GW150914 (section 5). We also detail the specific checks performed to rule out an instrumental or environmental noise-transient origin for GW150914, including potentially correlated noise sources such as global magnetic noise that would not be captured by time-shift background estimation techniques (section6). Similar studies were also performed for the second most significant event in the CBC search over the analysis period, designated LVT151012139, observedwith a false alarm probability of∼2%[1,2,9].
Figure 1.The average measured strain-equivalent noise, orsensitivity, of the Advanced LIGO detectors during the time analyzed to determine the significance of GW150914 (12 September to 20 October 2015). LIGO-Hanford (H1) is shown in red, LIGO- Livingston (L1) in blue. The solid traces represent the median sensitivity and the shaded regions indicate the 5th and 95th percentile over the analysis period. The narrowband features in the spectra are due to known mechanical resonances, mains power harmonics, and injected signals used for calibration[4–6].
139 LIGO-Virgo Trigger(LVT)151012(12 October 2015).
2. Identifying noise sources
In addition to the gravitational wave strain data,h(t), each of the LIGO detectors also records over 200 000auxiliary channelsthat monitor instrument behavior and environmental conditions. These channels witness a broad spectrum of potential coupling mechanisms, useful for diagnosing instrument faults and identifying noise correlations. Examples of instrument witness channels include measured angular drift of optics, light transmitted through a mirror as detected by a set of photodiodes, and actuation signals used to control optic position in order to maintain optical cavity resonance. In addition to candidate gravitational wave events, we study background trig- gers for correlation with trends or coincident transient noise in auxiliary channels on the broad scale of hours to days. We also identify correlations on the order of the duration of transient astrophysical signals; a fraction of a millisecond to a few seconds. Systematic correlations are used to generate data quality vetoes used by the astrophysical searches to reduce the background, as described in appendixA.
An important set of auxiliary channels are the physical environment monitor(PEM)sensors, which monitor the local surroundings for potential disturbances that may affect the gravitational wave strain data, such as motion of the ground or optics tables, magneticfield variations, acoustic disturbances, or potentially, cosmic ray showers [10]. A PEM sensor array is distributed throughout each detector site such that external environmental disturbances that could influence the detectors are witnessed with a significantly higher signal-to-noise ratio(SNR)in the PEM sensors than inh(t). The PEM sensors are detailed in appendixB.
The relationship between environmental noise as witnessed by the PEM sensor array and the gravitational wave strain signal h(t)is investigated using injection studies, where an intentional stimulus is introduced and the responses of both PEM sensors and the instrument are analyzed.
These injections ensure that the environmental sensors are more sensitive to environmental disturbances than the detector is, and also quantify the coupling between the environment andh(t). Figure 2 illustrates a magneticfield injection test at the LIGO-Hanford detector that measured magneticfield coupling toh(t)as well as the response of the local magnetometer to the injected field. The frequency-dependent coupling between the local magneticfield andh(t)can be cal- culated from these measurements and used to accurately predict the response of h(t) to the presence of a magnetic field, as witnessed by the local magnetometers. Figure 2 shows an injection performed at one of the strongest coupling locations, in the building containing the beam splitter and most interferometer optics. Other magneticfield injection measurements identical to this test were also conducted for other locations throughout the detector site. Similar injection studies were also conducted for radio, acoustic, and mechanical vibration sources.
3. Potential noise sources
Transient noise in h(t) must occur within the frequency range targeted by the transient astrophysical searches to affect the background. This range is dictated by the equivalent strain noise of the detectors, as shown in figure1for the Hanford and Livingston detectors during the analysis period.
Motivated by this sensitivity curve, the transient astrophysical searches generally limit the search frequency range to above 30 Hz and below 2–3 kHz, or roughly the human-audible range. For example, a binary black hole signal like GW150914 is expected to have power measurable by the Advanced LIGO detectors between roughly 35 and 250 Hz and sources of short-duration noise with similar frequency content could impact the background estimation of such events.
3.1. Uncorrelated noise
The following are examples of uncorrelated local noise features anticipated to be of particular interest or known to have a significant impact on the gravitational wave search backgrounds.
The contribution of any uncorrelated noise sources is well estimated using time shifts.
• Someanthropogenic noisesources are likely to produce short duration transients inh(t), such as human activity within one of the rooms that houses the vacuum chambers or
Figure 2.Noise coupling example: determining magneticfield coupling for a location at LIGO-Hanford. The top panel shows the output of a magnetometer installed in the corner station (see figure B1) during the injection of a series of single frequency oscillating magneticfields at 6 Hz intervals(in red)and at a nominally quiet time(in blue). The middle panel shows h(f) during this test (in red) and during the same nominally quiet time(in blue). The heights of the induced peaks inh(f)can be used to determine the magnetic coupling (in m T−1) at those frequencies, as shown in the bottom panel. The points in the bottom panel above 80 Hz were determined in a different test with a stronger magneticfield needed to produce discernible peaks in h(f). The green points in the middle panel are an estimate of the contribution toh(f) from the ambient magnetic noise during the nominally quiet time, calculated using the coupling function from the bottom panel. Injection tests also induced strong magnetic fields above 200Hz. At higher frequencies, coupling was so low that the injectedfields did not produce a response inh(f), but were used to set upper limits on the coupling function. Thisfigure only shows data for one(typical)location, but similar injections were repeated at all locations where magnetic coupling might be of concern.
