Two Micro-Computer Based Games

NOT FOR QUOTATION WITHOUT THE PERMISSION OF THE AUTHORS

TWO MICRO-COMPUTER BASED

GAMES

Norio Baba*

Y o s h i k a z u S a w a r a g i * * Hiroshi T a k a h a s h i * * * E i j i N a k a m u r a *

**

K u n i h i k o Machidue**

December 1986 WP-86-79

*On l e a v e f r o m Information Science and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tokushima University, Tokushima City, 770 Japan.

**Department of Science, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto City, 606 Japan. ***Information Science and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tokushima University, Tokushima City, 770 Japan.

Working P a p e r s are interim r e p o r t s o n work of t h e International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and have received only limited review. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily r e p r e s e n t t h o s e of t h e Institute or of i t s National Member Organizations.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria

Foreword

In management (and control) t h e most important f a c t o r i s a thorough knowledge of t h e behavior ( p r o p e r t i e s , dynamics) of t h e managed object. In technical systems t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s c a n b e (to a sufficient e x t e n t ) formally described. In t h e socio- economic system t h i s c a n not b e done so easily. This i s where games of various kinds c a n convey t h e "feeling" of t h e systems behavior in a v e r y instructive way.

The two games p r e s e n t e d in t h i s working p a p e r are of t h a t kind. They show, at t h e same time, how o n e c a n t u r n t h e constantly extending p r o p e r t i e s of microcomput- ers into a g r e a t e r sophistication of t h e game.

Both games c a r r y important messages f o r those who are in t h e p r o c e s s of managing common r e s o u r c e s . This p r o p e r t y should make t h i s working p a p e r by P r o f e s s o r Baba useful to a wide community.

Tibor Vasko Leader

Clearinghouse Activities

TWO

MICRO-COMPUTER

BASED GAMES

Norio Baba*, Yoshikazu Sawaragi**, Hiroshi Takahashi***, Eiji Nakamura*** and Kunihiko Machida*"

1. Introduction

Human activities h a v e s t r o n g e f f e c t s upon environmental changes. If w e only pursue industrial development (and/or selfish utilization of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ) and d o not c a r e much a b o u t environmental protection, s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e en- vironments would o c c u r .

In this p a p e r w e p r e s e n t t h e two Microcomputer G a m e s t h a t deal with t h e s e r i - o u s environmental problems. Since t h e s e games are in a dialogue mode and t h e Mi- crocomputer s c r e e n p r e s e n t s plenty of beautiful c o l o r g r a p h i c s , i t should contri- bute, in a n interesting a n d helpful manner, to t h e increased awareness of t h e en- vironmental issue.

The organization of t h e p a p e r is as follows:

In t h e f i r s t p a r t w e p r e s e n t t h e Microcomputer G a m e t h a t deals with t h e r e d tide problem known as one of t h e most s e r i o u s environmental changes at t h e innerland sea. A f t e r t h e detailed explanation f o r t h e r u l e s of t h e G a m e , t h e r e s u l t s of t h e gaming experiment t h a t w a s c a r r i e d out in t h e Microcomputer room of Tokushima University, Japan, is described.

In t h e second p a r t of t h e p a p e r w e p r e s e n t t h e Microcomputer Gaming System which is a modified version of t h e COMMONS G a m e by Powers et al. (1980). Follow- ing t h e brief .introduction of t h e original COMMONS GAME, w e will explain t h i s Mi- crocomputer Gaming System and give t h e experimental r e s u l t s obtained in t h e

Tokushima University. F u r t h e r , w e will b r i e f l y touch upon o u r t r i a l t o make t h i s Microcomputer Games much more i n t e r e s t i n g . In t h e l a s t p a r t of t h e p a p e r w e will discuss t h e m e r i t s a n d d e m e r i t s in using t h e Microcomputer game f o r t h e s e r i o u s environmental i s s u e s w e are facing.

2. A Description of the Environmental G a m e dealing with the Red Tide issue

2.1. Microcomputer Gaming System

In o u r Microcomputer Gaming System p l a y e r s r e p r e s e n t t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e f o u r chemical companies whose f a c t o r i e s are facing t h e sea. S i n c e t h e sea i s s u r - rounded by land on a l l s i d e s , a l l company management decisions c a n s t r o n g l y a f f e c t t h e environmental state of t h e sea. If t h e y invest l o t s of money t o improve t h e i r financial state, without giving d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e possible d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e sea b e c a u s e of t h i s invest, a s e r i o u s environmental situation could emerge.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e y must manage t h e i r company in s u c h a way as t o avoid t h e environ- mental d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e sea.

Figure 1 p r e s e n t s a model layout in o u r Microcomputer game. This game i s played on t h e

NEC

9801 F2 Microcomputer (Japan), b u t i t c a n easily b e t r a n s f o r m e d t o b e played on o t h e r microcomputers

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Apple, IBM P C 5550, etc. As t h e game i s

" u s e r f r i e n d l y " e v e n p e o p l e who h a v e l i t t l e knowledge r e g a r d i n g c o m p u t e r s c a n be- come p l a y e r s ( a n d / o r game d i r e c t o r ) .

2.2. Objectives of the Game

The game i s designed to:

(1) h e l p p e o p l e t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e r e d tide i s s u e at a n i n n e r l a n d sea,

(2) give people a c h a n c e t o manage a company whose f a c t o r i e s are facing t h e innerland sea.

2.3. Detailed Explanation for the Rules of the Game

The game c a n b e played f o r more t h a n 20 y e a r s with o n e game d i r e c t o r a n d f o u r p l a y e r s

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r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f o u r companies facing t h e innerland sea. A t t h e beginning of t h e f i r s t y e a r a n equal amount of money, f o r example $1000, i s given to e a c h of t h e f o u r p l a y e r s . Each p l a y e r must t h e n d e c i d e how much h e should in- v e s t f o r producing chemical goods a n d how much t o avoid environmental d e t e r i o r a - tion.

In e a c h r o u n d p l a y e r s should d e c i d e t h e following t h r e e values:

I : The amount of money t o b e invested f o r producing chemical goods.

2: The amount of money t o b e s a v e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g new equipment f o r

decontamination.

U : The amount of money t o b e utilized f o r o p e r a t i n g t h e c u r r e n t equipment f o r decontamination.

Since t h e r e are t h r e e kinds of chemical goods, e a c h p l a y e r should s p e c i f y , in de- ciding t h e value of I , in which chemical good h e will invest. The f i r s t chemical good G I may c a u s e l a r g e p r o f i t s with some r i s k s . The t h i r d chemical good G3 would only p r o d u c e small p r o f i t s (but with r a t h e r high probability). The s e c o n d chemical good Gz c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as t h e o n e taking t h e position in between G I a n d G3. In o t h e r words, investment f o r producing t h e f i r s t chemical good means speculation in some s e n s e a n d t h e o t h e r s mean sound management. Let u s explain t h i s more c l e a r - ly. In e a c h r o u n d t h e game d i r e c t o r r e c e i v e s a p a p e r from e a c h p l a y e r o n which t h e v a l u e s of I , 2 , a n d U are written. He t h e n inputs (from t h e microcomputer k e y b o a r d ) a l l of t h e s e v a l u e s i n t o t h e microcomputer. If h e p u s h e s t h e RETURN k e y 2 d i c e s r o t a t e a n d s t o p (Figure 3). The amount of money invested in e a c h chemical good i n c r e a s e s o r d e c r e a s e s depending upon t h e sum of t h e numbers of t h e 2 d i c e s .

Assume t h a t t h e ith p l a y e r invests at t h e k t h round If (k ),

15

^{(k ), a n d I $ (k ) on}

G l , G 2 , a n d G B , r e s p e c t i v e l y (Figure 2). If t h e sum of 2 d i c e s h a p p e n s t o b e 3, 4, o r 5 , h e r e c e i v e s

1:( k ) x (2.2 + # i ( k ))

+

I: (k x (1.00

+

& k ) )

+

I: ( k )

x

(1.10

+

# t ( k ) ) , w h e r e #$k) ( j

=

1 , 2 , 3 ) are normally d i s t r i b u t e d random v a r i a b l e s with z e r o mean.

If t h e sum of 2 d i c e s h a p p e n s t o b e from 6 t o 11, in t h e a v e r a g e 1f ( k ) d e c r e a s e s a n d I: ( k ) ( o r If3 ( k ) ) i n c r e a s e s (Figure 2). If t h e sum of 2 d i c e s becomes 2 o r 1 2 , h e r e c e i v e s

If ( k )

+

^1; ( k )

+

1f3(k)) x (1.5

+

#q(k))

w h e r e #:(k) i s normally d i s t r i b u t e d random v a r i a b l e s with z e r o mean.

The p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e sum of 2 d i c e s h a p p e n s t o b e 3, 4 , o r 5 i s consider- a b l y small. T h e r e f o r e , investment in t h e f i r s t chemical good G I is r a t h e r r i s k y . However, i t may p r o d u c e a l a r g e amount of p r o f i t s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e invest- ment on t h e t h i r d ( o r s e c o n d ) chemical good means sound management. (Even if t h e sum of t h e 2 d i c e s h a p p e n s t o b e 3, 4 , o r 5, t h e t o t a l amount of money invested in G 2 o r G B d o e s n o t d e c r e a s e s o much).

The microcomputer s c r e e n , as d e s c r i b e d in Figure 4, gives p l a y e r s in e a c h r o u n d v a r i o u s information

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t h e state of t h e sea (environment), t h e financial state, a n d business f o r e c a s t i n g . If t h e p l a y e r s invest t h e i r money only t o gain p r o f i t s , a n d d o not c a r e a b o u t environmental p r o t e c t i o n , t h e environmental s t a t e declines a n d t h e c o l o r of t h e sea becomes tinged with yellow. If t h e y continue with s u c h a selfish Decision o v e r s e v e r a l y e a r s , a r e d t i d e may a p p e a r o n t h e sea n e a r t h e i r f a c t o r i e s . If t h e y c h a n g e t h e i r policy a n d c a r e a b o u t environmental p r o t e c t i o n t h e r e d t i d e may d i s a p p e a r , in s e v e r a l y e a r s . However, if t h e y still continued t o invest a l o t of money t o p r o d u c e chemical goods and none f o r environmental p r o t e c t i o n , t h e y would b e o r d e r e d t o c e a s e a l l o p e r a t i o n s at t h e i r f a c t o r i e s .

The game c a n e n d in two ways:

(1) If s e r i o u s environmental d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e sea o c c u r s , t h e game ter- minates a n d e a c h p l a y e r loses money. The t o p r i g h t hand c o r n e r of Fig- u r e 4 shows t h a t t h e r e are 1 6 environmental states of t h e sea. (1 i s t h e b e s t s t a t e , a n d 1 6 t h e worst). The initial environmental s t a t e of t h e sea i s 6. Depending upon t h e policies c h o s e n by t h e p l a y e r s , t h e environmen- t a l state of t h e sea becomes b e t t e r o r worse. If t h e environmental state of t h e sea a d v a n c e s t o t h e 1 6 t h state, t h e game comes t o a n end, as i t in- d i c a t e s t h a t environmental c a t a s t r o p h e h a s o c c u r r e d . All p l a y e r s lose t h e i r c a p i t a l .

(2) The game comes t o a n e n d between t h e Z l s t a n d 30th round. (Each round h a s a n e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t y 0 . 1 with which t h e game t e r m i n a t e s ) . The p l a y e r who g e t s t h e l a r g e s t amount of money wins t h e game.

A s t h e game p r o c e e d s t h e p l a y e r s r e c e i v e v a r i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n s from t h e mi- c r o c o m p u t e r . F o r example, in s e v e r a l r o u n d s t h e p l a y e r h a s c o n t r i b u t e d most t o environmental p r o t e c t i o n is h o n o r e d and given a n amount of money by t h e govern- ment ( s e e F i g u r e 6). When t h e environmental d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e sea becomes a s e r i o u s problem, p l a y e r s are a s k e d t o pay consolation money t o t h e f i s h e r y ' s p a r - ty. The p l a y e r s should d e c i d e t h e amount of consolation money taking i n t o a c c o u n t t h e damages h e may h a v e c a u s e d t h e f i s h e r y ' s p a r t y . If t h e amount decided by him is n o t enough, h e will b e a s k e d t o pay a n additional amount ( s e e Figure 7).

A f t e r e v e r y 5 t u r n s t h e p l a y e r s h a v e a c o n f e r e n c e time. A s shown in Figure 8, t h e y are given information c o n c e r n i n g c o n c e r n i n g how t h e y h a v e influenced t h e environmental d e t e r i o r a t i o n . The game d i r e c t o r , a n d a l l of t h e p l a y e r s , should e v a l u a t e t h e decisions made by e a c h p l a y e r during t h e l a s t 5 rounds. They should c h o o s e a n i n t e g e r from -2 t o 2 a n d write i t on a s h e e t of p a p e r provided by t h e game d i r e c t o r . (2 (-2) means t h e b e s t (worst) contribution t o environmental p r o -

tection). Each p l a y e r should write 0 f o r his own score. The game d i r e c t o r re- c e i v e s t h e s h e e t s from t h e p l a y e r s a n d inputs a l l of t h e s e s c o r e s (including h i s own s c o r e s ) from t h e k e y b o a r d of t h e microcomputer. If t h e t o t a l s c o r e of a p l a y e r i s l e s s t h a n -4, h e h a s t o pay a penalty. If t h e t o t a l s c o r e of t h e p l a y e r i s l a r g e r t h a n 4 , h e r e c e i v e s a n award (money).

2.4. Playing the Game

This e x p e r i m e n t w a s c a r r i e d o u t in t h e Microcomputer Room of Information S c i e n c e a n d Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tokushima University, J a p a n , o n t h e a f t e r n o o n of F e b r u a r y 15, 1985. One of t h e a u t h o r s was t h e game d i r e c t o r , f o u r s t u d e n t s of t h e Tokushima University were assigned by l o t t e r y t h e r o l e of o n e of t h e f o u r companies whose f a c t o r i e s f a c e t h e innerland sea. Before running t h e game, t h e d i r e c t o r explained t h e r u l e s , t h i s took a b o u t 20 minutes.

Two game r u n e were c a r r i e d o u t , e a c h lasting a b o u t o n e a n d a half h o u r s . The f i r s t game ended at t h e 29th r o u n d , t h e second at t h e 21st round. The c h a n g e s of t h e environmental state a n d t h e amount of money gained by e a c h p l a y e r are d e s c r i b e d in Figures 9 t o 1 2 . These game r u n s were followed by a discussion with t h e p a r t i c i - p a n t s . The s t u d e n t s a l l a g r e e d t h a t t h e microcomputer game h a s a n educational ef- f e c t f o r t h e environmental problem, a n d i s a l s o q u i t e helpful b e c a u s e i t makes them aware of t h e r e d t i d e issue. They were impressed by t h e c o l o r g r a p h i c s in t h e mi- c r o c o m p u t e r s c r e e n , a n d found t h e game playing v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g .

3. A M i c r o c o m p u t e r G a m i n g S y s t e m o f the Commons G a m e

3.1. O r i g i n a l COMMONS

GAME

The Commons game developed by P o w e r s e t al. (1980) i s a n educational game intended t o help people l e a r n a b o u t s "commons". S i n c e w e live in a world having only f i n i t e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , i t i s wise t o c o n s i d e r t h e "wise utilization" of n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s . The Commons game may b e v e r y helpful in stimulating discussions on t h i s problem.

In t h e following, w e give a brief introduction t o t h i s game. Six p l a y e r s a r e asked t o s i t around a t a b l e . Following a brief introduction of t h e game, t h e game d i r e c t o r t e l l s t h e p l a y e r s t h a t t h e i r objective is t o maximize t h e i r own gains. Dur- ing t h e f i r s t t h r e e rounds p l a y e r s can play only with a g r e e n o r r e d c a r d . A f t e r t h e t h r e e rounds, t h e y are f r e e t o play o n e of t h e five c a r d s

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g r e e n , r e d , o r a n g e , yellow, and black. In e a c h round, p l a y e r s show t h e i r c a r d s behind a c a r d b o a r d shield t o e n s u r e individual privacy.

Each colored c a r d h a s i t s own special meaning, and h a s t h e following e f f e c t upon t h e t o t a l gains of e a c h player:

(1) Playing a g r e e n c a r d r e p r e s e n t s high exploitation of t h e commons.

P l a y e r s who play a g r e e n c a r d can g e t a maximum reward. However, they lose 20 points if one of t h e o t h e r p l a y e r s plays a black c a r d in t h e same round.

(2) A r e d c a r d r e p r e s e n t s a c a r e f u l utilization of t h e commons. Red c a r d p l a y e r s can only g e t about f o r t y p e r c e n t as much a s g r e e n in e a c h round.

(3) A black c a r d h a s a punishing e f f e c t on t h e g r e e n players. P l a y e r s who have played a black c a r d have t o lose point 6 divided by t h e number of black p l a y e r s , but are a b l e t o punish g r e e n p l a y e r s by giving them -20 points.

(4) A yellow c a r d r e p r e s e n t s a complete abstention from t h e utilization of t h e commons. P l a y e r s who play t h i s c a r d can g e t 6 points.

( 5 ) Orange c a r d s give a n encouraging e f f e c t t o r e d players. P l a y e r s who have played t h i s c a r d have t o lose point 6 divided by t h e number of o r a n g e c a r d s , but a r e a b l e t o add 1 0 t o r e d p l a y e r s points.

Depending upon t h e p l a y e r s ' s t r a t e g i e s , t h e s t a t e of t h e commons change. if p l a y e r s are t o o e a g e r t o exploit t h e commons, t h e n d e t e r i o r a t i o n o c c u r s . P l a y e r s h a v e a c h a r t on t h e b o a r d r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e payoffs for t h e r e d a n d g r e e n c a r d s u n d e r d i f f e r e n t conditions of t h e commons.

Although p l a y e r s are informed t h a t t h e r e will b e 6 0 r o u n d s , e a c h game e n d s a f t e r 5 0 rounds. A f t e r e a c h 8 t h r o u n d , p l a y e r s h a v e a t h r e e minute c o n f e r e n c e . They c a n d i s c u s s e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t t h e game a n d decide e v e r y possible way t o play in f u t u r e rounds.

Because of s p a c e limitations, t h e d e t a i l s of t h e r u l e s are not explained. F o r t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d , however, w e recommend r e a d i n g t h e p a p e r written by P o w e r s et al. (1980).

3.2. The M i c r o c o m p u t e r Gaming S y s t e m

In t h e summer of 1 9 8 3 , two of t h e a u t h o r s p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e game playing c a r r i e d o u t in t h e Seminar Room, IIASA, Laxenburg. The play was, of c o u r s e , v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g , a n d a l s o g a v e u s a valuable c h a n c e to c o n s i d e r t h e commons game. We f e l t , however, i t would b e helpful to h a v e a microcomputer gaming system of t h e commons game with c o l o r g r a p h i c s . S i n c e t h e n , w e c o n s t r u c t e d a microcomputer gaming system, a n d completed t h i s work r e c e n t l y .

In t h e following, l e t u s b r i e f l y explain t h i s microcomputer gaming system. Fig- u r e 13 p r e s e n t s a model layout of o u r microcomputer game.

In o r d e r t o i n s u r e individual p r i v a c y , t h e game d i r e c t o r p r o v i d e s e a c h p l a y e r with a p a p e r in which a t a b l e , as shown in Tables 1-6, i s drawn. Each p l a y e r points o u t a column a n d row number in h i s t a b l e , in t u r n , instead of playing c o l o r e d c a r d s . ( F o r instance, if t h e p l a y e r 3 points o u t 5

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^4, i t means h e plays a n o r a n g e c a r d ) . Since t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of e a c h t a b l e i s completely d i f f e r e n t , p l a y e r s c a n n o t g e t information a b o u t e a c h o t h e r s decisions. The game d i r e c t o r , or a n a s s i s t a n t , u s e s

a microcomputer k e y b o a r d t o input t h e d a t a of e a c h round.

A microcomputer s c r e e n , as d e s c r i b e d in Figure 1 4 , gives p l a y e r s v a r i o u s in- formation, s u c h as t h e state of commons a n d points r e c e i v e d by p l a y e r s in e a c h round. (If t h e state of t h e commons declines, t h e c o l o r of t h e waves becomes tinged with yellow. On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e c o l o r of t h e waves becomes tinged with blue if t h e state of t h e commons ameliorates). During t h e c o n f e r e n c e time, a mi- c r o c o m p u t e r s c r e e n p r o v i d e s p l a y e r s with beautiful c o l o r e d g r a p h i c s , a n d a l s o gives information a b o u t t h e times p a s s e d (Figure 15). This c o l o r g r a p h i c indicates t h e state of t h e commons. (The h e a v i e r t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e commons becomes, t h e more t h e e a r t h i s p a i n t e d o u t by r e d ) .

In o u r microcomputer gaming system, a game d i r e c t o r h a s t h e option of mak- ing t h e t o t a l points of t h e p l a y e r s public, o r of keeping them s e c r e t ) . T h e r e f o r e , a game c a n c o n s i d e r v a r i o u s ways of game playing. F o r i n s t a n c e , h e could c o n s i d e r t h e game playing in which t h e t o t a l gains of t h e p l a y e r s are k e p t s e c r e t d u r i n g t h e play of t h e game (Figure 16). He could d i r e c t t h e game playing in which t h e t o t a l gains of t h e p l a y e r s are made public d u r i n g a l l r o u n d s of t h e game (Figure 17). He could a l s o h a v e a game playing t h a t i s d e p e n d e n t upon p l a y e r s p r e f e r e n c e s . (If p l a y e r s a g r e e with changing t h e way of game playing in t h e c o n f e r e n c e time, t h e y c a n a s k t h e game d i r e c t o r to c h a n g e t h e game playing way, a n d h e c a n d o t h i s easi- ly).

The c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m i s w r i t t e n in N-Basic, i t c a n only b e used on t h e NEC 9801 microcomputer system. However, i t c a n b e t r a n s f o r m e d easily t o t h e p r o g r a m f o r o t h e r microcomputers s u c h as Apple a n d IBM. S i n c e t h i s p r o g r a m i s r a t h e r lengthy, w e omit i t in t h i s p a p e r . I n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r s may a s k one of t h e a u t h o r s of t h i s p a p e r .

3.3. T h e Playing o f the M i c r o c o m p u t e r Game

The f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t w a s c a r r i e d o u t in a small room of Information S c i e n c e a n d Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tokushima University, on t h e evening of December 23, 1983. Six 4th y e a r s t u d e n t s of t h e university, a n d two of t h e a u t h o r s , p a r t i c i p a t e d . One a u t h o r was t h e game d i r e c t o r . He explained t h e mi- c r o c o m p u t e r gaming system a n d t h e way t o play, t h i s took a b o u t 1 0 minutes. He wanted t o see t h e game playing in which t h e t o t a l points of a l l p l a y e r s in e a c h r o u n d w a s made public t h r o u g h t h e microcomputer s c r e e n . Two game r u n s were c a r r i e d o u t , i t took a b o u t o n e a n d a half h o u r s f o r e a c h game, with a o n e h o u r b r e a k between t h e two game r u n s . (One a u t h o r w a s a n onlooker).

Figures 18 a n d 1 9 p r e s e n t t h e c h a n g e s of t h e t o t a l gains of e a c h p l a y e r in t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d game r u n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The t o t a l points of t h e p l a y e r s in t h e second game r u n were h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e in t h e f i r s t game r u n . Figures 20 a n d 2 1 p r e s e n t t h e c o l o r rate t h a t w a s used d u r i n g t h e game r u n s . The rate of r e d c o l o r in t h e second game r u n w a s h i g h e r t h a n in t h e f i r s t game r u n . The rate of g r e e n c o l o r d e c r e a s e d in t h e second game r u n . F u r t h e r , t h e rate of o r a n g e c o l o r in t h e second game r u n w a s five times as much as t h a t in t h e f i r s t game r u n . These f a c t s indicate t h a t p l a y e r s gradually recognized t h e wise utilization of t h e commons a n d avoided selfish exploitation. They gradually became c o o p e r a t i v e . During t h e c o n f e r e n c e times, t h e p l a y e r s discussed how t o play in t h e f u t u r e rounds. T h e i r opinion gradually became c o n s t r u c t i v e . The 4 t h c o n f e r e n c e time of t h e s e c o n d game r u n w a s t h e most r e m a r k a b l e one. A p l a y e r p r o p o s e d t h e idea t h a t o n e p l a y e r should c h o o s e o r a n g e , a n d t h e o t h e r s r e d . The p l a y e r s a g r e e d t h a t a p l a y e r having t h e h i g h e s t points should c h o o s e o r a n g e and t h e o t h e r s r e d . After t h i s c o n f e r e n c e time, almost a l l of t h e p l a y e r s obeyed t h i s agreement. (The p l a y e r with t h e lowest t o t a l points w a s a n e x c e p t i o n , h e c h o s e g r e e n continuously).

The second e x p e r i m e n t was c a r r i e d o u t in t h e same room on t h e a f t e r n o o n of F e b r u a r y 8 , 1984. Six 3 r d y e a r s t u d e n t s of t h e university were t h e p l a y e r s in t h i s game, with o n e of t h e a u t h o r s as t h e game d i r e c t o r . He decided t o r u n t h e game in which t h e way of game playing (making t o t a l points public o r not) was determined by a g r e e m e n t among t h e p l a y e r s involved in t h e game. Two games w e r e c a r r i e d out. In t h e f i r s t game r u n , t h e t o t a l points of t h e p l a y e r s were made public only between t h e second a n d t h i r d c o n f e r e n c e times. The second game, however, was played making t o t a l gains public in all t h e rounds.

Figures 22 t o 25 p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s of t h e two game r u n s . The t o t a l points of t h e p l a y e r s in t h e second game r u n are slightly h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e in t h e f i r s t game r u n . The rates of r e d a n d o r a n g e c o l o r in t h e second game r u n were h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e in t h e f i r s t game r u n . The rate of g r e e n c o l o r d e c r e a s e d in t h e second game r u n . These gaming r e s u l t s a l s o indicate t h e educational e f f e c t s of t h i s microcom- p u t e r gaming system. However, in t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a c o n s t r u c t i v e opinion, t h a t a p - p e a r e d in t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t , did not a p p e a r , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e t h e 3 r d y e a r stu- d e n t s did n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e game s o w e l l .

After t h e e x p e r i m e n t s , almost a l l of t h e p l a y e r s s t a t e d t h a t in t h e i r opinion t h i s microcomputer gaming system w a s v e r y helpful in l e a r n i n g a b o u t common p r o b - lems, a n d a l s o v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . However, some p l a y e r s complained t h a t t h e game i s r a t h e r monotonous, and could b e modified.

3.4. A T r i a l to m a k e the M i c r o c o m p u t e r Game m u c h m o r e Interesting

W e h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e Microcomputer Gaming System which i s a modified v e r - sion of t h e o r i g i n a l Commons Game by P o w e r s et al. (1980). Although t h i s micro- c o m p u t e r gaming system gives us a valuable c h a n c e t o c o n s i d e r t h e commons, w e did find t h a t , d u r i n g t h e gaming e x p e r i m e n t s , some p l a y e r s did lose i n t e r e s t , in t h e middle of t h e game playing, b e c a u s e i t i s comparatively monotonous.

We are now making a new microcomputer gaming system t h a t will improve t h e previous one. In t h e following, w e will explain o u r e f f o r t s t o make t h e game much more interesting.

1) In o r d e r t o make t h e game playing much more exciting, w e set up "Informa- tion Time" and "Vote Stage"

a . I n f o r m a t i o n Time: A f t e r e v e r y six rounds t h e p l a y e r s have "Information Time". In t h i s round they g e t information about t h e o t h e r p l a y e r ' s stra- tegies. If a p l a y e r does not like his s t r a t e g i e s being obtained by t h e oth- er p l a y e r s h e must pay m o r e points t h a n t h e points paid by all t h e p l a y e r s who want to g e t information concerning him. Figures 26 and 27 d e s c r i b e t h e g r a p h i c displays t h e microcomputer s c r e e n obtains at "In- formation Time".

b. Vote Stage: If t h e environmental level is below -2, t h e microcomputer s c r e e n p r e s e n t s a g r a p h i c display, see Figure 28. This f i g u r e gives t h e p l a y e r s a l l t h e information concerning t h e numbers of t h e c a r d s they have s e l e c t e d during t h e game playing. Using t h i s information, e a c h p l a y e r decides on two p l a y e r s whom h e considers to b e most responsible f o r t h e decline of t h e commons. He writes t h e names o n t h e p a p e r pro- vided by t h e game d i r e c t o r . After collecting a l l t h e p a p e r s , t h e game d i r e c t o r inputs t h i s d a t a f r o m t h e microcomputer keyboard. If a p l a y e r is accused by more than 4 p l a y e r s , his t o t a l points are d e c r e a s e d t o 0.7 x (his t o t a l points).

2) When p l a y e r s do not know e a c h o t h e r communications have not been done successfully during t h e c o n f e r e n c e time. In t h e new game, a chairman is selected, randomly, by t h e microcomputer, in o r d e r to stimulate discussions among all of t h e p l a y e r s (Figure 29).

3) In o r d e r t o allow t h e game playing t o become much more dynamic a n d r e a l - i s t i c , t h e number of r e d c a r d s i s limited t o 6 in between c o n f e r e n c e times. ( T h e r e a r e 8 r o u n d s in between c o n f e r e n c e times).

4) In t h e o r i g i n a l commons game, g r e e n p l a y e r s r e c e i v e a penalty

-

20 points when some p l a y e r s e l e c t s a black c a r d . In t h e new game, penalty value P i s d e t e r - mined by t h e following equation t h a t d e p e n d s upon t h e state of t h e commons.

P

=

-max(20,G/3), w h e r e G i s t h e point t h a t g r e e n p l a y e r s c a n r e a c h when nobody s e l e c t s a black c a r d .

5 ) In o r d e r t o promote "Orange Card" and "Black Card", some c h a n g e s in t h e t o t a l points would b e v e r y r e a s o n a b l e , when t h e state of t h e commons improves (say, b e t t e r t h a n 2). F o r example w e could c o n s i d e r t h e following changes.

If t h e sum of t h e numbers of o r a n g e c a r d s a n d black c a r d s i s 5, N e w Total P o i n t

=

1.2 X ( P r e s e n t Total Point)

If t h e sum of t h e numbers of o r a n g e c a r d s a n d black c a r d s i s 6, New Total P o i n t

=

1.25 X ( P r e s e n t Total Point)

If t h e sum of t h e numbers of o r a n g e c a r d s and black c a r d s i s 7, N e w Total P o i n t

=

1.3 X ( P r e s e n t Total Point)

If t h e sum of t h e numbers of o r a n g e c a r d s and black c a r d s i s l a r g e r t h a n 8, New Total P o i n t

=

1 . 4 X ( P r e s e n t Total Point)

4. Concluding Remarks

W e h a v e d e s c r i b e d t w o Microcomputer-Based Games. W e c a n e n u m e r a t e s e v e r a l a d v a n t a g e s f o r t h e microcomputer gaming system.

(1) S i n c e t h e microcomputer c a l c u l a t e s f a s t , p l a y e r s c a n enjoy game playing without a time d e l a y .

(2) P l a y e r s c a n g r a s p a vivid f e a t u r e of t h e commons t h r o u g h a beautiful c o l o r g r a p h i c display. I t may h e l p p l a y e r s t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e game

playing.

(3) A floppy d i s c c a n b e o b t a i n e d q u i t e e a s i l y , a n d so t h e game c a n b e played w h e r e v e r a c o m p u t e r i s a v a i l a b l e . S i n c e t h e game i s " u s e r friendly", e v e n p e o p l e with l i t t l e knowledge of c o m p u t e r s c a n become p l a y e r s . (4) The microcomputer c a n store v a r i o u s d a t a in t h e game playing. T h e r e -

f o r e , t h e game d i r e c t o r , a n d / o r p l a y e r s , c a n successfully utilize them in follow-up sessions. (The microcomputer c o l o r g r a p h i c s c a n stimulate dis- cussions a b o u t t h e game).

(5) A Line P r i n t e r p r o v i d e s t h e game d i r e c t o r with all of t h e n e c e s s a r y in- formation d u r i n g game playing.

However, t h e de-merits of using t h e microcomputer are:

(1) Where t h e s a m e t y p e of microcomputer i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e p r o g r a m must b e r e w r i t t e n so t h a t i t c a n b e u s e d by o t h e r microcomputers.

(2) A s t h e s c r e e n of t h e microcomputer i s n o t l a r g e , p l a y e r s must s i t close to t h e s c r e e n .

REFERENCES

Assa, I. 1983. "Management simulation games: a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of gaming in t h e s o c i a l i s t countries", pp.63431, in I. S t a h l , (Ed). O p e r a t i o n a l Gaming: An I n t e r n a t i o n a l A p p r o a c h . I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Applied Systems Analysis, L a x e n b u r g , Austria.

Ausubel, J.H. 1 9 8 1 . ' T h e G r e e n h o u s e E f f e c t : An Educational Board Game", In- s t r u c t i o n Booklet. I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Applied Systems Analysis, Lax- e n b u r g , Austria.

Baba, N . , Uchida,

H.,

a n d S a w a r a g i , Y. 1984. "A gaming a p p r o a c h to t h e a c i d r a i n problem", Simulation a n d Games, 15. pp.305-314.

Baba, N. 1984. ' T h e G r e e n h o u s e E f f e c t Game by Microcomputer", P r o f e s s i o n a l P a - p e r , PP-84-1. I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Applied Systems Analysis, Laxen- b u r g , Austria.

Duke, R.D. 1974. G a m i n g : m e F k t u r e ' s L a n g u a g e . S a g e Publications.

Marshev, V. 1981. "Gaming in t h e USSR", CP-81-13. I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Ap- plied Systems Analysis, L a x e n b u r g , Austria.

Powers, R.B., Duss, R.E., a n d Norton, R.S. 1980. I n s t r u c t i o n Booklet.

S t a h l , 1. 1983. "What i s Operational Gaming?" in I. S t a h l (Ed). Operational Gaming:

An I n t e r n a t i o n a l Approach. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Institute f o r Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria.

Player 2 0

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Figure 1 Model Layout in the Microcomputer Gaming

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Figure 6 This Figure Indicates That the Microcomputer Has Chosen the 4th Player as the One Who Has Most Contributed to the Decontamination o f the Sea

Fishery Creuc Demand C c m p e n s a r i o n f o r the S e r i o u s D a m a g e in the 5 2 2 .

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Figure

7

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Figure

9

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- .:.::. .,.. ' . '-& ^..

. .

-- _- +

^-;:;/

-'..

x..

-.

K E E P T H E E N V f R O N

Figure 29 Graphic Display of the Microcomputer Screen a t the

Conference Time

PLAYER- 1

1

i.

GREEN

: !

i

^YELLOW

I BLACK i 5 3 4 4 4 2 5 1 5 2 :

i

!

i

! I

_!

Table 1 Code Matrix of Player 1

I !

:

+

ⁱ

!

I

!

i GREEN

I

i ^{3 2 3 1 1 3 2 5 1 2 1}

1 ^{R E D 1} I ^{4 1 5 3 2 4 1 4 2 3}

^j

¹

! I

!

I i

i

I

^{YELLOW ! - 1}

^{4 * , 4 2}

^{7 4}

^{7 . 3}

¹ _!

f O R A N G E

1

i 5 3 2 4 5 2 3 2 4 5 1

I

Table 2 ^Code Matrix

of

Player-2

.;

I !

i

I I

i

f

I

I ! 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 O I

I 1

!

^I

I

^! _I

1

_I

!

1

GREEN

I ! 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 4 5 1 1

i

!

I i i

! i !

I

R E D

I I

I

! Y E L L O W

4 5 ; 3 3 4 3 2 1 5 i

^j

I !

I

I

O R A N G E

i !

T a b l e 3 C d d e M a t r i x o f P l a y e r L 3 -

! ! I

I I

!

R E D

I

1

!

2 1 4 2 2 . 7 3 5 1 1

I

_I

I i

_I

: Y E L L O W i 4 5 5 2 4 3 2 1 3 3 1

j

O R A N G E

Table 4 Code Matrix o f Player 4

! G R E E N

! i 2 1 5 1 2 5 4 1 2 4i ~

! ! !

I 1

1 YELLOW

1 f 1 3 3 2 3 4 1 . 3 4 1

i

I

1 ;

! i

O R A N G E j 4 5 2 4 4 2 3 5 3 2 i

! ^t

I i ^!

; E L A C K j 5 4 1 3 5 3 2 4 5 3 i

I I

! ! ^:

Table 5 Code Matrix o f Player 5

!

^I

1

I

I !

1

G R E E N

I

! 2 S 5 1 S ' 1 3 2 1 3 l

I

i

! I

i

i R E D

f 3 1 2 3 4 2 - - 4 1 2 2 ;

4

i I

i

f YELLOW 1 1 2 1 2 3 5 2 3 3 1 1

i 1 1

i ^{! I}

/

O R A N G E

i 4 3 4 5 2 4 1 5 4 5 i

I

I I i

I

1 ^I

!

ELACK i s 4 3 4 1 3 S 4 S 4 i

I

I

I

i

Table 6 Code M a t r i x o f P l a y e r 6

- - t - t - t F f - i f - 6 1 - -8-.91-0---

- --

R G R Y R O Y B G Y O Y O G G R G R R B G B Y R Y Y O G Y O Y O B B B G R 0 , O G B R G O O B B Y B R

1

^5-

I

R Y B O B B B R G Y

Y R R G G Y R Y G Y B G O Y R O G O R G G O G R Y G O B Y R N Y Y O B R Y R O B O b R B O B B G B O

Y R Y G B G O R G Y G S d Y O R Y G R R R O B R Y B G Y Y G O B O B R O R B O B B G G O G Y B O B O

T a b l e 7 Code M a t r l x o f t h e Game D l r e c t o r