Development, Sexual Rights and Global Governance

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Development, Sexual Rights and Global Governance

Thisbookaddresseshowsexualpracticesandidentitiesareimaginedandregulated throughdevelopmentdiscoursesandwithininstitutionsofglobalgovernance.

Theunderlyingpremiseofthisvolumeisthattheglobaldevelopmentindustry playsacentralroleinconstructingpeople’ssexuallives,accesstocitizenship,and strugglesforlivelihood.Despitetheindustry’spersistentinsistenceonviewingsex- ualityasbasicallyoutsidetherealmofeconomicmodernizationandanti-poverty programs,thisvolumebringstotheforeheterosexualbiaswithinmacroeconomic andhumanrightsdevelopmentframeworks. Theworkfillsanimportantgapin understandinghowpeople’sintimatelivesaregovernedthroughheteronormative policieswhichtypicallyassumethatthefamilyisbasedonbloodorpropertyties ratherthanonalternativeformsof kinship.Byplacingheteronormativityatthe centerofanalysis,thisanthologythusprovidesamuch-neededdiscussionabout thedevelopmentindustry’sroleinpathologizingsexualdevianceyetalso,more recently,inhelpingmakevisibleasexualrightsagenda.

Providinginsightsvaluabletoarangeofdisciplines,thisbookwillbeofparticu- larinteresttostudentsandscholarsofDevelopmentStudies,GenderStudies,and InternationalRelations.Itwillalsobehighlyrelevanttodevelopmentpractitioners andinternationalhumanrightsadvocates.

AmyLindis Mary EllenHeintz EndowedChair and Associate Professorof Women’s,Gender,andSexualityStudiesandfacultyaffiliateoftheDepartment ofSociologyandtheSchoolofPlanningattheUniversityofCincinnati.

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RIPE series in global political economy

Series Editors: Louise Amoore (University of Durham, UK), Jacqueline Best (University of Ottawa, Canada), Paul Langley (Northumbria University, UK), and Leonard Seabrooke (Copenhagen Business School, Denmark)

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Thepoliticaleconomyofregional capitalistdevelopmentinLatin America

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Businessandthecountervailing powersofcivilsociety

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29 Development,SexualRightsand GlobalGovernance

EditedbyAmyLind

* Alsoavailableinpaperback

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Development, Sexual Rights and Global Governance

Edited by Amy Lind

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ofexpression,anddesiresfalloutsidethesexualandgendernormsof theirsocieties,yetwhobelievethatanotherworldispossible.

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Contributors

AmyLind(Ph.D.,CornellUniversity)isMaryEllenHeintzAssociateProfessor ofWomen’s, Gender,and Sexuality Studies and afacultyaffiliate inthe DepartmentofSociology andthe SchoolofPlanning atthe Universityof Cincinnati.Sheisthe authorofGenderedParadoxes:women’smovements, staterestructuringandglobaldevelopmentinEcuador(PennStateUniversity Press,2005).Hercurrentresearchaddressesthetransnationalgovernanceof intimacyandstrugglesforsexualrightsinpost/neoliberalLatinAmerica.She isalsoanaffiliatedprofessorofGenderStudiesatFLACSO-Ecuador.

KateBedfordisaResearchFellowattheAHRCResearchCentreforLaw,Gender andSexualityattheUniversityofKent.Shehasworkedoninternationaldevel- opmentprojectsinAsia,Europe,andLatinAmerica,andshetaughtnumeracy andliteracyskillsinEngland.Hercurrentresearchfocusesontheinteractions betweensexualitystudies, developmentstudies, andinternational political economy.ShehasjustcompletedabookentitledDevelopingPartnerships:

gender,sexuality,andthepost-WashingtonconsensusWorldBank(University ofMinnesotaPress,2009).

SuzanneBergeronisDirectorof Women’sStudiesandAssociateProfessorof Women’sStudiesandSocialSciencesattheUniversityofMichigan,Dearborn.

SheistheauthorofFragmentsofDevelopment:nation,genderandthespace ofmodernity (UniversityofMichiganPress, 2004)and variousarticleson genderednarrativesofeconomicdiscourseinjournalssuchasSigns:journal ofwomenincultureandsociety,InternationalJournalofFeministPolitics, NationalWomen’sStudiesAssociationJournal,andselectedanthologies.

Sangeeta Budhiraja isProgram Officer, Building Movements at the Ms.

FoundationforWomen.She hasworked asaconsultant onsexuality and humanrights issues,andisworkingtoadvance thesexualrightsframework atthelocal,national,andinternationallevels.Formerly,shewastheRegional ProgramCoordinator forAsiaandthePacificattheInternationalGayand LesbianHumanRightsCommission(IGLHRC).SangeetaholdsaJ.D.fromthe CUNYSchoolof LawwhereshefocusedonInternationalWomen’sHuman RightsLaw.

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Ashley Currier (Ph.D., Universityof Pittsburgh)is Assistant Professor of SociologyandWomen’sStudiesatTexasA&MUniversity.Sheiscurrently workingonabookmanuscript,BecomingVisible:LGBTorganizinginNamibia andSouthAfrica,whichexploreshowNamibianandSouthAfricanlesbian, gay,bisexual,andtransgender(LGBT)organizationsworktoovercometheir politicalandsocialinvisibility.Hercurrentresearchexaminestheoriginsand persistenceofhomophobia(s)insouthernAfricanpoliticaldiscourse.

PetraDoan(Ph.D., Cornell University)isAssociateProfessor ofUrban and RegionalPlanningatFloridaStateUniversity.Shehaspublishednumerous articlesoneconomicdevelopmentandplanningintheMiddleEast.Hercurrent researchaddressesLGBTperceptionsofurbanspaceintheUnitedStatesand theMiddleEast,withanemphasisontransgenderissues.Herarticle,“Queers intheCity:transgendered perceptionsofurbanspaces”appears inGender, Place,andCulture(2006).

SusanaT.Fried(Ph.D.,RutgersUniversity)isGenderAdvisorattheHIV/AIDS Group/BDPattheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP).Withover 20yearsofexperienceingender,sexuality,andhumanrightsissues,Susana authored“ShowUstheMoney:isviolence againstwomenandgirlsonthe HIVdonoragenda?”aspartoftheWomenWon’tWait:endHIVandviolence againstwomenandgirls. Now.Campaign.ShewastheProgramDirectorat the InternationalGayandLesbianHuman RightsCommissionandProgram DirectorofInternational Policyand Advocacyat theCenterforWomen’s Global Leadership.Shehas consulted with manyorganizations,including GlobalRights,AmnestyInternational,theProgramonInternationalHealthand HumanRightsattheHarvardSchoolofPublicHealth,andtheSexualHealth andRightsProgram(SHARP)oftheOpenSocietyInitiative(OSI).Sheisan AdjunctAssistantProfessoratColumbiaUniversity’sSchoolofInternational andPublicAffairs.

AndilGosineisAssociateProfessorofSociologyatYorkUniversity(Canada).He iscurrentlypursuingresearchonconfigurationsof“race,”gender,andsexuali- tiesin“ethnic”sexualhealthpromotionincountriesoftheNorthandSouth.His articlesinclude“MarginalizationMythsandtheComplexityof‘Men’:engag- ingcriticalconversationsaboutIrishandCaribbeanmasculinities,”inMenand Masculinities,and“Sexforpleasure,rightstoparticipationandalternativesto HIV/AIDS:placingsexualminoritiesindevelopment,”IDS WorkingPaper

#228,Sussex,UK.

MajaHorn(Ph.D., CornellUniversity) isassistant professor ofSpanishand LatinAmericanCulturesatBarnardCollege.PriortojoiningBarnard,shewas anAssociatedResearcher attheLatinAmericanFacultyofSocialSciences (FLACSO-DominicanRepublic),wheresheundertookresearchforaprojecton therelationbetweenDominicanpublicspacesandshameandhowitregulates Dominicangenderandsexualnorms.

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SusieJollyisConvenoroftheSexualityandDevelopmentProgramme,Institute ofDevelopmentStudies,UK.Herresearchfocusesontheintersectionsbetween sexualityanddevelopment.TogetherwithAndreaCornwallandSoniaCorrêa sheco-editedDevelopmentwithaBody:sexualities,developmentandhuman rights(London:ZedBooks,2008).Shehasorganizedseveralconferencesand eventsenablingexchangesbetweensexualrightsactivistsandresearchersand sharingtheirinsightswithpeopleinthedevelopmentindustry.Shepreviously livedinBeijingforseveralyears,managingpovertyalleviationprogramsfor theUnited NationsDevelopment Programme(UNDP),andjoining inlocal women’srightsandLGBTactivism.

SusanPaulsonisDirectorofLatinAmericanStudies andprofessorofanthro- pologyatMiami University.Shereceivedher Ph.D.inanthropology atthe Universityof Chicago. She haspublished numerous articles,in English, Spanish,andPortuguese,inthe areasofgender anddevelopment,sexuality studies,andpoliticalecologyinLatinAmerica(especiallyBolivia).

JyotiPuri(Ph.D.,Northeastern University)isassociateprofessor andchairof sociologyatSimmonsCollege.SheistheauthorofWoman,Body,Desirein Post-colonialIndia:narrativesofgenderandsexuality(Routledge,1999)and EncounteringNationalism(BlackwellPublishers,2003).

AlexandraTeixeiraisPhilanthropicPartnerOfficerattheAstraeaFoundation.

FormerlyshewasResearchandPolicyCoordinatorforGlobalAdvocacyat theInternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission(IGLHRC).Her workatIGLHRCfocusedonadvancingsexualrightsprotectionthroughUnited Nationshumanrightsmechanismsandcoalitionworkinotherglobalfora.She holdsaMaster’sDegreeinInternationalAffairsfromColumbiaUniversity.

AraWilsonisDirectorofSexualityStudiesandAssociateProfessorofWomen’s StudiesandCulturalAnthropologyatDukeUniversity.SheistheauthorofThe IntimateEconomiesofBangkok:tomboys,tycoonsandAvonladiesintheglobal city(UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004)andiscurrentlyworkingonhernew bookproject,SexualLatitudes:theeroticpoliticsofglobalization.

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Acknowledgements

Likeallanthologyprojects,thisvolumeistheresultofthecollectiveenergyand dedicationofseveralindividuals.Itbeganwithmerecognizingthefactthatamong the smallbutgrowinggroup ofscholars, activists,andpolicy-makersfocusing onsexualrightsanddevelopmentinoneformoranother,therewasyettobea solidcollectionaddressingthemultipleissuesinvolvedinreframingsexthrough anon-normativelens.Thusthisprojectbeganwiththisaiminmind,andwiththe goalofcontributingtoabroaderglobalagendalinkingsexualandeconomicjustice.

Manypeoplecontributedtothisemergingvisionofchange.Firstandforemost,I thankSuzanneBergeronforherinvolvementwiththisprojectfromthestart.Not onlydidshehelpmebrainstormatinitialstagesoftheprojectbutshehelpedin numerousotherways–toomanytolisthere–andprovidedimportanteditorial feedbackandsupportthroughouttheprocess.

Thesechaptershavebeenpresentedcollectivelyinfourvenues:IthankSuzanne Bergeron(asprincipalorganizer)andhercolleaguesattheUniversityofMichiganat DearbornandattheInstituteforResearchonWomenandGenderattheUniversity ofMichiganatAnnArborforsupportingapanelinMarch2007.Severalchapters werepresentedatthe2006and2008NationalWomen’sStudiesAssociationannual conferencesandadditionalchapterswere presentedatthe RethinkingMarxism conference,heldattheUniversityofMassachusetts-Amherstinfall2006.

Duringthisprocess,Ihavealsohadtheopportunitytosharethoughtsandideas fromtheevolvingmanuscriptwithcolleaguesinacademicandNGOsettingsin Quito,Caracas,Brighton,Lima,London,Montreal,SanFrancisco,NewYorkCity, andSyracuse,andwithstudentsinmycoursesattheUniversityofCincinnatiand FLACSO-Ecuador.Ithankmyfriends,colleagues,andstudentsfortheircritical andconstructiveinput,andfortheirongoingsupportforthisproject.Ialsothank SuparnaBhaskaran,Kate Bedford,SoniaCorrêa,SusieJolly,JaneParpart,and SpikePetersonfortheircommentsontheintroductionasIpresenteditinmultiple forms,atvariousvenues.Finally,IthanktheUniversityofCincinnatiFriendsof Women’sStudiesandtheDepartmentofWomen’s,Gender,andSexualityStudies forfundingportionsoftheresearchandtravelforthisproject.

AtRoutledge,Ithankmyeditor,HeidiBagtazo,forhersupportandencourage- ment.IalsothankJeniJenkinsforherhelpcompilingthebibliography,andJill Williamsforherresearchassistance.

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Abbreviations

ABC “Abstain,befaithful,usecondoms”

AIDS AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome ANC AfricanNationalCongress

ASA AmigosSiempreAmigos BDS BlueDiamondSociety

BtM BehindtheMask

CD compactdisk

CDC CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention CLIC lesbiangroupinThailand(seeChapter5)

CMAC CentreforMediaandAlternativeCommunication

CONAMU ConsejoNacionaldelaMujer(NationalWomen’sCouncil) COPRESIDA ConsejoPresidencialdelSIDA(PresidentialAIDSCouncil) CREA CreatingResourcesforEmpowermentandAction

DAWN DevelopmentAlternativeswithWomenforaNewEra DC DistrictofColumbia

DFID DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment EOHR EgyptianOrganizationforHumanRights

EP EqualityProject

FEW ForumfortheEmpowermentofWomen FGM femalegenitalmutilation

GAD GenderandDevelopment GALZ GaysandLesbiansofZimbabwe

GL gayandlesbian

GLB gay,lesbianandbisexual

GLBT gay,lesbian,bisexual,andtransgender

GLIFFA GaysandLesbiansinForeignAffairsAgencies

GLOBE Gay,LesbianorBisexualEmployees(oftheWorldBank Group)

GTZ DeutscheGesellschaftfürTechnischeZusammenarbeit HIV HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus

HR humanresources

IASSCS InternationalAssociationfortheStudyofSexuality,Cultureand Society

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IGLHRC InternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission ILGA InternationalLesbianandGayAssociation

ILO InternationalLabourOrganization IMF InternationalMonetaryFund LGB lesbian,gay,andbisexual

LGBT lesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgender

LGBTI lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,andintersexed LGBTQ lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,andqueer

LGBTQI lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,queer,andintersexed MNR MovimientoNacionalistaRevolucionario(Nationalist

RevolutionaryMovement) MSM menwhohavesexwithmen

MSMW menwhohavesexwithmenandwomen NiZA NetherlandsInstituteforSouthernAfrica NGO non-governmentalorganization

PUCL-K People’sUnionforCivilLiberties,Karnataka

SICA ServiciodeInformaciónyCensoAgropecuario(Agricultural CensusandInformationSystemService)

SIDA SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency SIGI SisterhoodisGlobalInternational

SIP+ SouthIndianPositiveNetwork STI sexuallytransmittedinfection TI transgenderedandintersexed

UK UnitedKingdom

UN UnitedNations

UNAIDS JointUnitedNationsProgrammeonHIV/AIDS UNGLOBE UnitedNationsGay,LesbianorBisexualEmployees UNIFEM UnitedNationsDevelopmentFundforWomen

US UnitedStates

USAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment VCR videocassetterecorder

WB WorldBank

WID WomeninDevelopment

WLUML WomenLivingUnderMuslimLaws WSW womenwhohavesexwithwomen

WWHR WomenforWomen’sHumanRights–NewWays

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Introduction

Development, global governance, and sexual subjectivities

Amy Lind

Fortoolong,peoplewhodonotfitwithinsociallyprescribedsexualandgender rolesintheirsocietieshavebeenseenasirrelevanttoor“outside”theproject ofdevelopment.Wehearaccountsofhowglobalizationaffectslocal, typically impoverished,communitiesintheglobalSouthyetrarelyifeverdoweseeany representationsofsexualdifferenceotherthan theheterosexualand “gender- appropriate”norms;norms typicallydefined intheglobalmediaby Western standards.Ifanything,queersare seenas“unproductive”todevelopmentoras destructivetotheimaginednationalcommunityanditsmodernizationgoals,and queersexualsubjectivitiesarerarelyunderstoodoutsidethepurviewofmedical pathologiesorcriminalbehavior.Thisisso,despiteemergentformsofoppositional queerconsciousnessandpoliticalstrategizingthatwehavewitnessed,especially sincetheearly1990s, inmanycountriesaround theworld.Lesbian,gay, and bisexualactivists,alongwithgender-variantactivists includingcross-dressers, transsexuals,andtransgenderedindividuals,havechallenged post/neocolonial statesandglobalinstitutionsonavarietyofgroundspertainingtotheirmarginal- izedidentities.Scholarshaveonlybeguntoaddresshowtheseemergentsexual subjectivitieshaveprovidedimportantchallengestoheterosexistbiasandgender normativityinpost/neocolonialstateplanningtraditionsandtechnologies.Queer activistshavestrategicallyengagedwiththe globaldevelopmentindustry,most literallybyseeking foreignaidfortheirstruggles,yetalso necessarilyasthey workinnon-governmental,state,andtransnationalarenas,asawaytoforgetheir politicalidentitiesandchallenge repressivestateapparatuses,oftencountering imperialist logicsaswell.Perhapsironically,queernesson aglobal scalehas cometobeknownlargelyintheneoliberalera,aneramarkedbytheglobalization ofeconomicandsocialnormativities.Onaneconomiclevel,privatization,state deregulation,andfree-marketideologieshavehelpedshapeaninstitutionalcontext inwhichnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs),bothforprofitandnon-profit, havehadtopickupwherethestateleftoff.Thishasledamongotherthingstothe reprivatizationofsocialwelfare,withimportantconsequencesfornon-normative familiesandhouseholdsthatdonot“count”as thesubjectsofdevelopmentaid, evenwithinlocalgrassrootseffortswherepeople(necessarily)takeplanningfor survivalintotheirownhands.Manyofthelesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgender (LGBT)groupsthatemergedduringthepasttwodecadeshaveheldambivalent

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relationshipstodevelopment, modernization,andmodernityastheyunderstand it.Tobeginwith,theestablishmentofliberalhumanrightsmechanismsandglo- balizationhasfacilitatedtheriseofpublicLGBTidentitiesandcultures,albeitin partialandfragmentedways.AndLGBTgroupshaveexperiencedthecontradic- toryeffectsofglobalizationbasedontheirownlocationsinnewpublic–private relationshipsbetweencivilsocietysectorsandnation-states,whichhasaffected theirorganizingstrategies,fundingopportunities,andpoliticalsubjectivitiesin unforeseenways,sometimesleadingtotheiracquiescence,ratherthanopposition, toneoliberalism(Fernández-Alemany2000;Lind2007;Oswin2007b).Asqueer studiescontinuestoinfluencescholarship,advocacy,andpolicy-makinginthearea ofdevelopment,wemusttakenoteofthediscipliningandmaterialeffectsonthe mostmarginalizedqueersinanysociety,ratherthansuccumbingtonewformsof homonormativeimperialism.

Thiscollectionofessaysaroseoutofmyperceptionthatthereisagreatneed forassessingthe contributionsofqueer studiestothefieldof developmentand globalizationstudies. Likewise,itgrewoutofmypreoccupationwiththe femi- nistscholarshipongenderanddevelopment,which,whileusefulforexamining normativefamilystructuresandpatternsofgenderrelations,hasrarelyturnedits attentiontothestudyofheterosexualityasasocial institution(LindandShare 2003).Byexamininghownotionsofgenderandsexualityareinscribedindevel- opmentinstitutions,policies,andframeworks,oftenthroughaheteronormative andgender-normativelens,authorsinthisvolumeprovideacriticalqueryingof

“development”itself,andexploretheliberatorypotentialaswellasthecontradic- tionsofanyprojectthatattempts“queerdevelopment.”

Atleastfoursetsofcurrentconcernsorissueshaveinspiredthiscollection.First, someofushavebecomeincreasinglypreoccupiedwiththeentrenchednatureof heteronormativityindevelopmentnarratives,policies,andpractices,particularly intheneoliberalera,wherenormativefamilymodelshavebeennewlyintegrated intomanyinternationalaideffortsandwheretheglobalgovernanceofintimacy isunfoldingincomplexandcontradictoryways(BussandHerman2003;Butler 2006;seealsoBedford,thisvolume).Althoughmanyobservershave notedthe effects ofglobalrestructuringonheterosexualfamiliesandhouseholdsandon animaginedheterosexualnationalcommunity, fewhavebeguntoanalyzehow processes ofneoliberaldevelopment andglobalizationthemselvesleadtonew arrangementsofheteronormativeintimacyandtonewclassesofheterosexuality, letalonehowtheseiterationsofidentityconvergewithnewformsofhypermas- culinityandhyperfemininityonaglobalscale.

Second,weareconcernedabouttheincreasingly globalizedbacklashagainst gays,lesbians,bisexuals,andtransgenderedpeople,includingthere-inscription ofheteronormativepower innationalistideologiesand theoutrightdenialof fullcitizenshiptohomosexualsinvariouscountries.Ashasbeenobserved,this backlash that wearewitnessingin severalcountries around theworldis the resultofacomplexsetoffactorsatplay,includingongoingstrugglesconcerning postcolonialnation-buildingandthedebatesontheeffectsof westernizationon non-Western andpoorcountriesinthewesternhemisphere;critiquesof theUS

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asempireandtheaccompanyingnotionofourworldasunipolar(despitethefact thatsomecountriesarenowshiftingawayfrom whatwas onceperceivedasa quasi-hegemonicneoliberalmodel;e.g.Venezuela);historicaldiscoursespositing homosexuality(andsometimestransgenderism)aseithercriminalorpathological;¹ andglobalizedstrugglesoverthemeaningof“thefamily”inreligiousdoctrineand internationallaw.

Atthesametime,significantadvanceshavebeenmadeinsomecountrieswith respecttogayandlesbianrightsand/ortogenderidentityclaims,leadingsome toobservethatnation-statessometimehavestrategicreasonstiedupwithnation- alismorglobalmarketallegiancesto become“gay-friendly”(Oswin 2007b).

Interestingly,gaynessandqueernesshavebeenusedasbarometersofnational progressanddevelopment:someviewtheadditionofgayrightsasasignofprog- ress,as inthecasesof neoliberalSouthAfricaandEcuador(Lind2007;Oswin 2007b),whereasothersviewitasaWesternimpositionand/orasadeteriorating factorintheirnationalidentities(seeBhaskaran2004;Hoad2007).Theinclu- sionof anti-discriminationclausesonthebasisofsexualorientationinthenew constitutionsofSouthAfrica(1996),Fiji(1997)andEcuador(1998)offerhope forthepossibilityofsexualcitizenshipintheglobalSouth;²however,theselegal accomplishmentshavebeenmetwithopposition,andtheintroductionofgayrights intoformalpoliticsandpolicydomainsalsoraisesimportantquestionsaboutthe normalizingrisksassociatedwithmakinguniversalclaimsonthebasisofthegay/

lesbianbinary,whenstillmanyindividualsremainoutsidetheprojectofglobal gayrights.

Third,wearemotivatedby thetransnational dialoguesamongscholarsand activistsaboutthe globalizationofsexualityandthequeernessofglobalization (Gibson-Graham1996–7;Altman 2001;Bhaskaran2004;Wilson2004;Oswin 2007aandb).Inanincreasinglyglobalized,marketizedcontext,heteronormativ- ityaswellashomonormativityhave playedrolesinshapingglobalhegemonic expressionsofcapitalistpower;inexoticizingtheso-calledThirdWorldandqueers withinit;andinshapingqueerconsumersubjectsinlatecapitalismwhothemselves consumeandbenefitfrom(typicallyracialized)imagesof queerpeopleinpoor and/ornon-Westerncountries;forexample,assextourists,pinktravelers,human rightsactivists,PeaceCorpvolunteers,missionaries,orNGOvolunteers(Hennessy 2000;Altman2001;Alexander2005).Needlesstosay,therelationshipsamong capitalism,westernization,andemergentqueersubjectivitiesarecomplexatbest, andthisprojectaimstocontributetodebatesonthistopic.

Finally,weareinspiredbytheincreasedvisibilityofsexualrightsandgender justicemovementsintheglobalSouth,manyofwhichhave providedintersec- tionalcritiquesoftheviolenceofWesternnormativitiesfromthestart.All of theseprocessescombined haveplayedimportantrolesinshapingwhatwecall thenewsexualsubjectsofdevelopment:gaymen;menwhohavesexwithmen, orMSMs;lesbians;womenwhohavesexwithwomen,orWSWs;transsexuals, andothernon-normativeidentitiesnowtargetedas subjectsinneedofdevelop- mentaidorassistance.Ofcourse,mostdevelopmentframeworkscontinuetorest onheteronormativeimaginingsofnationalprogressandidentityand,moreoften

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thannot,non-normativeindividualsareleftoutofthepicture.However,asrecent constitutional,legislative,andmarketvictoriesattest,somenation-statesandpublic culturesintheglobalSouthareincreasingly“gay-friendly,”creatingthepossibility ofsexualcitizenshipforsome.Theemergenceofthenewsexualsubjectsofdevel- opmentisalsorelatedtothefactthatgaysandlesbianshave“comeout”within thedevelopmentindustryandchallengeditsheteronormativepremises,atleastfor theirownbenefit,ifnotforthosewhoarethetargetsoftheirdevelopmentinter- ventions.“Comingout”withinthedevelopmentindustrymayleadtoitsqueering, yetfurtherqueriesintothecultural,political,andeconomiceffectsofdevelopment itself,includingdevelopmenteffortstoaddresstheneedsoflesbians,gaymen,and/

orgender-variantpeople,haveyettobefullyaddressedorunderstood,particularly astheymaycontributetoproducingnewformsofhomonormativities.

Pointsofdeparture

Inthis volume, authorsquery development, globalization,andglobalgover- nancethrougharangeofapproachesandonvariousscales.Someutilizepolitical economyastheirprimarymethodologicaltool;othersdrawfromethnographyor culturalstudies.Mostdrawfrom poststructuralistandpostmodernistthoughtto addressthehistoricalgenealogiesofqueersindevelopmentandsexualrightsand genderjusticestruggles.Genealogiesofgayness,queerness,andLGBTrightshave, inmanyways,informedthegeopoliticallandscapewithinwhichwecan(orcannot) imaginequeernessandvariousformsofnormativitiesassociatedwithneoliberal formsofglobalgovernance.GivenhowdiscriminationagainstLGBTpeoplehas longbeenjustifiedonthebasisofitspurportedrelegationtotheprivaterealmof our“intimate”lives,hereIproposeanotionof“globalgovernance”thatcaptures how intimacyand communityareequallyregulated anddisciplinedalongside formalcitizenshipandstatedevelopmentmodels.Animportantaspectofmyown understandingofglobalgovernance,then,involveshowpeople’sintimatelivesare tiedupwithstateandneoliberalgovernmentalities;thatis,howaxesof“personal life”areorganizedinsuchawayinmodernnation-statesthatqueersarelegally excludedfromtheirfullcitizenshiprightsandspatiallyexcludedfrompubliclife.

KenPlummerreferstothisastherealmof“intimatecitizenship,”whichforhim includes“…rights,obligations,recognitionsandrespectaroundthosemostinti- matespheresoflife–whotolivewith,howtoraisechildren,howtohandleone’s body,howtorelateasagenderedbeing,howtobeaneroticperson.”(Plummer 2001:238).Asmanyobserversofdevelopmentandglobalrestructuring have noted,asnon-stateinstitutionshaveincreasinglyplayedinterpretiverolesindefin- ingcitizenshipandwhatconstitutes“proper”citizenpracticesintheneoliberalera, sotoohavepeople’ssubjectivitieschangedasaresult(Ong2006).Importantly, sometimespeoplehavelearnedto“speakback”ratherthanmerelyabsorbthedual effectsofthisbroadsetofstructuralreformsandthescholarlyunderstandingsof themaslinear,unidirectional,penetrating,andomnipresent(Oswin2007a;seealso Gibson-Graham1996–7).Frommyperspective,addressingneoliberalgovernmen- talitiesinthisbroadersensecapturesthelayersofinstitutionsthatare involved

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indefiningandregulatingourintimatelives.Seenthroughthislens,development policies,practices,andinstitutionsworkasinstrumentsofgovernanceandasmeth- odsofconstructingandlegitimizingsubjectivities(ShoreandWright1997;Bondi andLaurie2005).Thus,strugglesforinterpretivepoweroverpolicydefinitionsare nottrivialconversationsthattakeplacewithingoverninginstitutions;rather,they representbroaderstrugglesoverculturalrepresentation,orrecognition,andaccess tomaterialresources,orredistribution(Franco1989;Fraser1997).Itisimportant topointout,however,thatwhileneoliberalisminitsmultipleiterationshasbrought withitthesenewunderstandingsofgovernanceandcitizenship,manyqueershave longbeencriticaloftheirliteralandfigurativerelegationtotheprivaterealm,well beforetheWashingtonconsensusneoliberalorthodoxycameintobeingandwell beforetheglobaljusticemovementbegantovisiblypushforashiftawayfrom neoliberaleconomicsandfromtheidentitypoliticsmodels emanatingfromthe philosophicalschoolofliberalism.Thus,themultipleformsofmarket-leddevelop- mentthatwenowseearoundtheworldrepresentnewchallengestolong-standing formsofdiscriminationand,paradoxically,potentialspacesforaqueerliberatory politics,asseveralcontributorspointout.Combined,thechaptersinthisvolume querydevelopmentframeworks,policies,andprocessesthatprivilegenormative gendersandsexualitiesoverallothers,includingthosepromotingneoliberalide- als,with theultimategoalofrethinkingheteronormativityandgenderism (i.e.

hostilereadingsofgender-ambiguousbodies–seeBrowne2004)indevelopment andconstructingsexualrights,genderjustice,anddecolonizationstrategiesinthe globalSouthandtransnationally.

This projectisbothnormative andanti-normative innature.Authors query developmentframeworksasawaytorethinkandreprioritizeglobalandnational developmentagendas,withtheaimofbringingvisibilitytoandprovidingcitizen rightsforpeoplewhodonothavethesamerightsas“gender-appropriate”hetero- sexuals.Thisincludeswomenwholovewomen,menwholovemen;self-defined gays,lesbians,andbisexuals;heterosexualswhodonotfitprescribedgenderroles;

cross-dressers;transsexuals;andthemanyotherlocalandregionaliterationsof non-normativegendersandsexualitiesthattheterms“queer,”“genderqueer,”and

“transgender”aimtoinclude(Morton1996;Nestle,Howell,andWilchins2002;

Currah2006;StrykerandWhittle2006).Atthesametime,manycontributorspoint outthattheyareacutelyawareofthelimitationsofnormativepolitics,particularly whenone’sidentityisdefinedasdeviant,pathological,andcriminalfromthestart, wherepoliticalreformcanonlyimprovetheirsecondarystatusratherthaninvert ortransformtheidentitymodelinanysubstantiveway.Whilesomearguethat itisdifficulttoimaginequeerpossibilitiesoutsidethehegemonicmonocultural, uniworldvisionofneoliberaldiscourse,manyothersareoptimisticallypointing towardthenewinstancesoftransnationalsocialjusticemovementsthatwehave beguntowitnessinthepost-WashingtonConsensusera–andforsomecountries, arguablya“post-neoliberal”moment–inwhichwelive(Vargas2003;Grimson andKessler2005;Fernandes2007;Lind2007).³Authorsinthisvolumearedoing justthat:providingalternative readings ofglobalnormativitiesreinforcedby developmentpoliciesandsuggestingnewwaysofthinkingaboutqueernessand

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identityinthecontextof neoliberalgovernanceandgovernmentalities.BelowI outlinethreegeneralareasofinquirythatinformthisscholarship:viewsonqueerness,queryingdevelopment,andqueersindevelopment.

Viewsonqueerness

“Likesize,definitionsmatter,”asInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)econo- mistGuyStandingstatesinananthologychapterdevotedtothesocialeffectsof globalization,leavingthereadertodecideifhisreferenceistothephallus,global- izationorboth(2004:111).Indeed,whendiscussing“queerness”intransnational context,definitionsmatter.Certainly“queerness”hasbeeninterrogatedbyqueer andpostcolonialstudiesscholarsforitsusefulness(orlackthereof)inunderstand- inggendersandsexualitiesintheglobalSouth;andcontributorstothisvolume holdarangeofviewsonitsusefulnessorlackthereof.SuparnaBhaskaran(2004) offersausefuldefinitionofthestrategicusageofqueerness.Shedefinestheterm inboth“abroadandnarrowsense,”ina“strategic,embodied,verymuchmarked, andinventivemanner,”recognizingthatqueernesscan“flattenoutdifferences,”

yet alsoserveasacoalition-buildingmechanismtochallengevariousformsof normativity(Bhaskaran2004:8–9).

Justastheterm“gay”wasintroducedinmanycountriesoftheglobalSouthin the1970s,atopichistoricallyaddressedbyLGBTstudiesscholars(Murray1995;

Fernández-Alemany2000;Altman2001),theterm“queer”begantocirculate amongscholarsandactivistsinsoutherncountriesinthe1980sand1990s;this,of course,variesbyregionandbytheirgeopoliticalrelationshiptoEnglish-speaking, colonizingnation-states.Thecirculationoftheseterms,whichinvolvescomplex transnationalexchangesratherthanmereimpositionsfromNorthtoSouth,have allowedfornewwaysofexamining“gayness”and“queerness”inWesternaswell asnon-Westerncountries.Somecontributorschoosetousethetermtoconnotethe multipleformsofsexualandgenderidentitiesthatexist,althoughwiththeunder- standingthatthisterm,too,needstobeproblematized.Drawingfromqueertheory, wesuggestthatthisframeworkofsexualityismoreappropriatethanadualistic frameworkofhomosexuality/heterosexuality(Butler1990;Sedgwick1990).As opposedtodefinitionsofhomosexualandbisexual,thenotionof“queerness”helps ustorethinkdualismsinWesternthoughtandindevelopmentdiscourses,which tendtouniversalizeWesterndefinitions–about“good”versus“bad”,“normal”versus“abnormal”gendersandsexualities.Volumecontributorsaddressawiderange ofidentitiesthatarenon-normativeoranti-normative,includingmenwhohavesex withmen,gaymen,lesbians,gender-variantindividuals,andheterosexualfemale single-headedhouseholds.Whilecontributorsdonotclaim“queer”toencompass

“allthatisnotnormative,”assomeUS-basedqueertheoristshavedone(infact, somechoosenottousethetermatall),theydemonstratehowheteronormativity hasnegativeeffectsnotonlyforself-definedqueers(e.g.individualswhodonot fitwithinculturallyprescribedsexualand/orgendernorms)butalsoheterosexual individualswhodonotfitwithinprescribedgenderrolesandthereforedonotben- efitfromdevelopmentinitiativesastheirgender-normativecounterpartsmight.

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Queernesscan flattenoutdifferences amonglocally understoodidentities, suchasmoffiesinSouthAfrica;desidykesanddesigaymeninIndia;tortilleras, trasvestis,chitos/femmes,ormariconesinSpanish-speakingLatinAmericaand theCaribbean;ortomsinThailand,tonameonlyafew.Queerness,likegayness, whenittendstoflatten outdifferences,isoftenassociatedwithwesternization, universality, hegemonicknowledge production,orepistemicprivilege.Ifand whenqueernessisviewedasadequatelyencompassingthenumerousforms in whichindividualsdefinethemselvesintheirdailylivesthroughouttheworld,then queerstudieshasfailedtograsphowthefielditselfcontributestonormativizing genderandsexualvariance.Thusthisvolumeaddressesbothheteronormativityin developmentthoughtandinstitutionalpractices,aswellasthepotentialhomonor- malizingeffectsofmainstreaminggaynessinthedevelopmentindustry.“Queering development,”ortheefforttobringsexualrightsandgenderjusticeagendastothe forefrontofdevelopmentthoughtandpractice,isnecessarilyaparadoxicalprocess fromthestart,onethatisimbuedwithhegemonicaswellasoppositionalformsof knowledge,consciousness,andexperience.

Thenamingofsexual/genderdifferenceis tiedupwithprocessesbywhich marginalizedgroupsof peoplename themselves inrelation toprocesses of nation-building,racialization,colonization,orclassexploitation.“Queering”our analysisofmarginalizedsexualandgenderidentitiesallowsusto“accountfora senseofdifferencethatcomeswithmarginality”(Arrizón2006:3);inthiscase, withinnarrativesandpracticesofdevelopment.Oneoftheaimsofthisvolume, then,istorethinkhowsexualidentityisorganizedandnormalizedindevelopment narrativesandpractices,oftenthroughitsconflationwithracializedgendernorms (Gosine2005a).Contributorsusetheterm“heteronormativity”explicitlytoillus- tratehowheterosexualityisnormalized,naturalized,andprivilegedinsocietiesof theglobalSouth,intheinternationaldevelopmentfield,andincolonialandpost/

neocolonialnarrativesoftheso-calledThirdWorldorglobalSouth.

Queryingdevelopment

Queerstudiesscholarshaveinterrogatedthemeaningandmakingofdevelopment invariousways,includingthroughre-readingsofscholarshipontheroleofwomen andthefamily indevelopment,wherewomenaretypicallyscriptedasasexual, exceptasreproducers,andasgendernormative(e.g.mothers,wives);bychalleng- ingheteronormativityindevelopmentthought;andbyaddressinghowsexualrights havebeenintroducedintoandnegotiatedindevelopmentthoughtandpractice.

Heteronormativeconstructionsofthefamilyhaveunderscoredpost/neocolonial projectsofnation-buildinganddevelopmentfromthestart,althoughthisisoften overlookedinmainstreampoliticaleconomyaccounts.Ideasaboutsexualpractices withintheglobaldevelopmentindustrystemfromearlierorientalistnarrativesof colonizationthatdrewuponheteronormativeaccountsofthesexualbehaviorsof

“natives” tojustifyideologicalandmaterialconquest. “Moraljudgmentsabout the developmentofcivilizationweredebatedinandthrough‘scientific’claims aboutthesexualbehaviorsof‘nativeothers,’”(PiggandAdams2005:3–4).As

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newlyformedpost/neocolonialnationsdevelopedtheirstateplanningtechnologies, heteronormativeclaimsinscribedincultural,racial,andnationaldifferencewere oftencentraltotheirmodernizationprojects.Thepost-WorldWarIIdevelopment industryemergedthroughanddrewfromtheseheteronormativenarrativesofprog- ressandmodernization.Developmenttheory’sfocusonthenationastheunitof analysisandontheanalyticalseparationbetweenthenation-stateandtheeconomy, aprocessalreadyunderwayinWesternliberaleconomicthought(Bergeron2004), restedupontheseassumptionsnowlabeledhomophobicorheteronormativeby LGBTandqueerstudiesscholars.

Thedevelopmentindustrynecessarilydrewfrommodernizationtheoriesofeco- nomicdevelopment,healthcare,education,populationpolicy,andcitizenshipto designtheirblueprintsforprovidingaidtoforeigncountries.Whileclearlythere wasnosingleblueprintforsuchawidespreadendeavor,certainWesternvalues aboutthepoliticalandeconomicsystem,coupledwithvaluesaboutfamilylifeand citizenship,wereattheheartofmanyoftheearlierdevelopmentpolicies.Sexwas alwayscentraltothatproject.“EvensinceBrettonWoodsinstitutionswerecreated, theregulationofsexhasbeenacritical–ifgenerallyunrecognized–component of socialandeconomicdevelopmentpolicies”(Gosine 2005a:3).Reproductive sexwaswhatmostinteresteddevelopmenteconomistsandplanners,as“unfettered reproductivesex…wasunderstoodtocreate‘overpopulation’…”andthrougha colonialist,racializedlens,nativeswereseenaspronetooverpopulation(Gosine 2005a:3).

Today,effortsatsexualhealthreformarelinkedtolargerdevelopmentprojects andwhilemanylocalgroupshavereclaimed,negotiated,orchallengedthisnarra- tiveofpopulationcontrol,reproductivehealthcontinuestobelinkedtonarratives ofeconomicgrowth,prosperity, andsovereigntyincomplexand problematic ways.Typically,developmentplannershaveaddressedsexualityundertherubric of“reproductive health,”wherereproductive(hetero)sexuality isemphasized, especiallymaternalandchildhealth(Hartmann1995;PiggandAdams2005).And particularlysincethestartoftheHIV/AIDScrisis,sexualityhasbeenincreasingly addressedundertherubricof “sexualhealth,”wherethecontrolofdisease–inthis case,thespreadofHIV/AIDStothebroadercommunityandnation–isaddressed throughtheregulationofsexualpractices,especiallythoseofmenwhohavesex withmen(MSMs)astheyareseenaspotentialcarriersofthedisease(Wright 2000;Gosine2005a).⁴Yetwhiledevelopmentpractitionersmayfocusondisease interventionandprevention,activistshaveutilizedthisdiscourseinstrategicways asawaytoconstructasexualrightsagenda.

Whereasheterosexualwomen’sbodieshavebeencentraltonarrativesandprac- ticesofnationaldevelopment,ashasbeenwidelydocumentedbyfeministscholars (forarecentaccount,seeJaquetteandSummerfield2006),men’sandwomen’s queerbodieshavebeenlargelyabsentexceptwhenviewedaspotentialthreatsto theheteronormativesocialorder.Howqueermenandwomenareviewedhasledto contrastingandcontradictoryformsofregulationandvisibilizationindevelopment frameworks.Forexample,becauselesbiansaretypicallyviewedasnon-procreative andas“non-mothers”;theyaremostlyleftoutofthepicture,exceptwhentargeted

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intheirreproductiveroles(e.g.apregnantlesbian,amother whohappenstobe lesbian).Inthiscase,theirqueeridentityissidelinedandtheyareviewedprimar- ilyasmothersormothers-to-be.Becauseoftheabsenceofamaleintheirlives, symbolically,atleast,theyposeaperceivedthreattostate-buildingprojectsand totheheteronormativesocialorder.Theyareseenas not“inneed”ofdevelop- mentinterventions,as theyarerepresentedeitherasunlikely-to-get-pregnantor unlikely-to-get-AIDS.Thisisso,despitethefact thatlittle,ifany, researchhas beenconductedtoassesslesbianhealthissuesinpoorcountries.⁵

Men’squeerbodies,incontrast,havebeenwidelysubjecttodevelopmentinter- ventionsthroughthelensofpublichealthanddiseasecontrol,primarilyasaresult oftheHIV/AIDScrisis(Gosine2005a).Seenaspotentialcarriersofdisease,gay menarenowseenasanimportanttargetforinterventionbecauseoftheirpoten- tialHIVstatus;assuch, theyare broughtintothefoldofdevelopmentthrough healthinterventions,oftenimplementedbyNGOs,thatintheoryarepredicatedon pathologizednotionsofdevianceand/orcontamination.Ofcourse,manyNGOs havenegotiatedthetermsofdevelopmentfundingandreclaimedthepurposeof HIV/AIDSprojectsintheirownterms,therebytransformingthistypeofdisease discourseintooneofempowermentorstrength.AsTimothyWrighthaspointed outinhisresearchontheglobalizationofgayidentitiesinBolivia,manygayrights groupshaveutilizedthistypeoffunding,muchofwhichoriginallycamefromthe UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),toinstitutionalize theirrights-basedstrugglesforsexualand/orgender diversity,expression,and rightsintheirhomecountries(Wright2000).⁶

Whatthesenarrativesshareareanunintendedorconsciouscomplicitywithhet- eronormativity,namelywithreproductiveheterosexualityanditscentralplacein modernistdevelopmentconceptionsoffamilylifeandthenation.Aswomenare seenasreproducers,instudiesasvariedaswomen’sparticipationinso-calledfor- malandinformalsectoremployment;women’seconomiccontributionstonational development;women’shouseholdlabor;women’ssurvivalstrategies;orwomen’s educationalorhealthinitiatives,theyarelinkedtothefamilyandprivaterealm, andseenasonlysecondarilyparticipatinginthelabormarketandpublicrealm.

Thatis,evenifwomenareaskedtoenterthelabormarketormustnecessarilydo so(asisthecaseforthemajorityofwomeninpoorcountries),theirlaborisless valuedthanmen’sandofteninvisible,asmanyfeministeconomistshavepointed out(Jacksonand Pearson1998;Benería2003).Similarly,menareviewed as linkedtothemarketandpublicrealm,andrecentfatherhoodinitiativeshavesought primarilytoteachmen“howtolovebetter” whilewomen aretaught“towork harder,”therebyreinforcing,evenifinverting,themale-publicasfemale-private dichotomy(seeBedford,thisvolume).⁷Andas GillesKleitzwarnsus,although

“[d]evelopmentworkonlydeliverssafebenignpackagesofincomegenerationand improvedrightsforwomenwiththefamilyinstitution…thetrulyliberatingrevo- lutionofredefiningidentitiesoutsidereproductionandthefamilyremainsmostly untouched…”(Kleitz2000:2).Inthisway,evenfeministaccountsthatseekto makewomen’slabor,lives,andidentitiesvisibleindevelopmentframeworkstend toreinforcethispresumedmale–femaleheterosexualcontract,wherebymenand

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womencontinuetoplayheteronormativegenderedrolesineverylevelofanalysis:

thehousehold,themarketeconomy,aspecificindustry,thecommunity,theglobal politicaleconomy,etc.Thisnarrative aboutheterosexualfamilylifepowerfully shapesarangeofscalesandrepresentationsofdailylife,culturalpractice,racial purity,nationalidentity,andglobalpoliticaleconomy.Assuch,theseaccountsof development,includingthosewiththeimportantgoalofuncoveringmalebiasesin economicdevelopmentframeworks(Elson1995),leaveuntouchedheterosexual- ityasasocialinstitution,andthewaysinwhichinstitutionalizedheterosexuality convergeswithprojectsofnation-building,empire,globalization,anddevelopment aswellasinfluencesonpeople’sdailylives,experiences,andsubjectivities.

Solongasreproductiveheterosexualityisseenasthe“onlyfunctionalformof sex”indevelopmentpolicyframeworks(Kleitz2000),anydiscussionofpleasure, desireorsexualidentityclaimswillcontinuetobelefttothewayside.Whilethreats todailysurvival intheformof hunger,violence,orphysicaldisplacementmay supercedecertainsetsof choicesaboutengaginginpleasurable acts,claims for identityrights,desire,andpleasure,whenrepressed,erased,orcriminalized,are alsothreateningtodailysurvival.AsDennisAltmanstates:

“[T]hepleasuresofthebody”cannotbeseparatedfromthe worldoutside.

Peoplewhoareundernourished,sick,pregnant,old,orthreatenedbypotential violencewillexperiencetheirbodiesverydifferently,andonlywhenpolitical andeconomicconditionsallowcanweengageincertain“pleasures.”Indeed bodilypleasureisoftenshapedbypoliticalandeconomicconditions…

(Altman2001:2) Thusviewingsexualityasadevelopmentissuehasbecomeanimportantpartof reformingthedevelopmentindustryfromwithin,whereascriticallyinterrogating developmentasasetofdiscourses,representations,andpracticesinvolvesamore radicalundertaking.Indeed,thistensionbetweenrecognizingtheneedsandrights ofLGBTpeopleindevelopment,ononehand,andchallengingdevelopment’s disciplinarymechanismsontheother,appearsthroughoutthechapters.

Queersindevelopment

Increasingly,developmentpractitionershave“come out”intheworkplaceand pushedforchangeconcerningtheirownconditionsasworkers.Somehavealso workedtoincorporateaqueerperspectiveintodevelopmentplanning.Howhave developmentpractitioners’ownperspectivesshapednarrativesandpracticesof development?Mostdevelopmentinstitutionsdonothavestrongprograms(ifany) intheareasofsexualityorsexualrights,particularlyinregardtolesbian,gay, bisexual,transgenderandqueer(LGBTQ)sexualities.Yetsomedevelopmentprac- titionershavefoundinterestingwaystointerveneintheirinstitutions,occasionally leadingtothequeeringofdevelopmentinitiativesintheglobalSouth.Somelesbian andgaydevelopmentpractitionershavesoughttoacquiretheirownrightsaswork- ers(e.g.employeebenefits)withintheirinstitutions,asinthecaseoftheWorld

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Bank’sGay,LesbianorBisexualEmployees(GLOBE),anemployeeassociation examinedatlengthbyAndilGosineinthisvolume,andtheUnitedNationsGay, LesbianorBisexualEmployees(UNGLOBE). BothGLOBEandUNGLOBE wereformedbylesbian,gay,andbisexualemployeestoaddresstheirsocialneeds, rights,andbenefits.Ironically,theWorldBankoffersamongthemostextensive setofbenefitstogay,lesbian,andbisexualemployeesintheindustry:

TheWorldBankinparticularhas…a“fullpanoply”ofrightsforsame-sex, unmarriedheterosexualorothernontraditionalpartnerships.Regulationsatthe bankstateclearlythatwhenregisteredbyaffidavitprovingthatcertaincriteria (suchasthelengthandstabilityoftherelationship)havebeenmet,domestic partnersofitsgaystaffmemberswillgetmedicalcoverage.Moreover,a“reg- istereddomesticpartner”ofabankemployeealsogetsanIDcard,traveland relocationallowances,accidentinsurance,educationpaymentsfor children, healthclubmembership,immunizationsandahostofotherbenefits.

(Crossette2003:4) ThepresenceofGLOBEandtheBank’ssupportofdomesticpartnerbenefitscan beattributedtoavarietyofcomplexandcontradictoryfactors,includingthelead- ershipofkeyBankemployees;efficiencyargumentsmadebyGLOBEmembers andadoptedbyBankleadersconcerninghowtheinstitutionalsupportofworkers leadstooverallbetterefficiencyandoutput;andaseriesofconjuncturaleventsthat ledtothissetofemployeepolicies(Crossette2003;Gosine,thisvolume).While someGLOBEmembershaveplayedkeyrolesinshapingtheBank’spolicyframe- works,forthemostpartGLOBEmembershaveeitherchosennottoorhavebeen unabletodirectlyinfluenceorchallengetheBank’soveralldevelopmentagenda, thusmaintainingtheinvisibilityofqueernessintheglobalSouthandleavingthe Bank’sneoliberalprojectintact,asGosineeloquentlyargues.

UNGLOBEhasadifferentinstitutionalhistory,asnotallUNmembernations supportitsexistence.Itwas,however,grantedofficialrecognitionasanemployee advocacygroupin1996bytheUN’sOfficeofHumanResourcesManagement.In contrasttoGLOBE,UNGLOBEmembershavecalledfor“astrongerUNrolein protectingtherightsoflesbiansandgaysbothinsideandoutsidetheworldbody”

fromthestart.WhereGLOBE’sfocusismoreonemployeerelationsandGLOBE membersoften shyawayfrominfluencingBankpolicy,UNGLOBE members perhapsnecessarilyhavelinkedtheirstruggleforemployeebenefitswithbroader LGBTstrugglesfromthestart.AsmembersoftheUnitedNationssystem,their employeestatusisbasedonthenationallawsofeachstaffmemberinquestion, asFredEckhard,UNspokesmanforformerUNSecretary-GeneralKofi Annan (1997–2006),hasexplained(Deen2003:3).Annanhimselfoncestatedthat“this isnotsomethingtheorganizationshouldgetinvolvedin,”giventhecontroversial natureoftheissueofhomosexualityinmembercountries(Deen2003:3–4).⁸Thus whileUNGLOBEhasbeenrecognizedasanemployeeassociation,membershave receivedlittleinthewayofsupportfromtheUnitedNations,andtheirstruggle isdirectlylinkedtothebroaderUNhumanrightsagendaandtotheworldwide

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struggle forsexualrightsandgenderjustice.InDecember2008,66 countries signedajointUNstatementforLGBThumanrightsinwhichtheycallforthe worldwidedecriminalizationofhomosexuality.Whilethisstatementwassigned byonlyasmallfractionofUNmembernations,itrepresentsasignificantopen- ingforfuturechangewithintheUN.Asanemployeeassociation,UNGLOBE’s recognitionrests uponthisbroaderprocessand,as such,theyhaveheldamore publicplatformthanGLOBEwithrespecttotheirmission.

Elsewhere,queeradvocatesandpolicy-makershaveworkedtoaddresstheeco- nomicrightsofLGBTpeople,althoughthusfarfewstudieshavebeenconducted toaddresshow,forexample,restructuringprocessesaffectsame-sexhouseholds orpartnerships,thenatureanddepthofdiscriminationagainstgaysandlesbians ortransgenderedindividualsintheworkplace,or theeffectsofamyriad devel- opmentprojectsandpolicyframeworksonproducingnewformsof genderand sexualnormativitiesandnewclassesof heterosexuality.Exceptionsincludethe workoftheInternationalGayandLesbianHumanRightsCommission(IGLHRC), InternationalLesbianandGayAssociation(ILGA),andregionalnetworksfunded bysmalldonoragenciestoaddressthelocalconsequencesofheterosexistdiscrimi- nationinrelationtootherformsofoppressionsuchasracism,classexploitation, andthenegativeeffectsofstatepoliciesorglobalization.

Whilequeeringdevelopmentinstitutions“fromtheinside”isanuphillbattle,the presenceofqueersinthedevelopmentindustryclearlyhasledtosomeprogressfor arethinkingofsexualandgenderrights.Yettheseexamplesrevealimportantcon- tradictionsabouttheroleofqueersindevelopmentanddevelopmentpractitioners (ofall sexual identities) whoworkin queerdevelopmentinstitutions, frameworks,andpractices.Questionsremainabouttheliberatorypotentialofqueering development:WhenbringingLGBTconcernsintotheanalysis,aredevelopment practitionerscontributingtotransformingdevelopment frameworksoristheir queeringofdevelopmentpoliciesatypeof“addqueersandstir”approachreminis- centofearlierWomeninDevelopment(WID)“addwomenandstir”approaches?⁹ Willtheireffortsleadtolesbianandgaymainstreaming(hereaplayon“gender mainstreaming”),¹⁰wherebynormativenotionsofsexualrightsaremerelyincor- poratedintocapitalist,neoliberaldevelopmentframeworks,orwilltheirpresence intheindustryleadtoadeepertransformationofsocialrelations?Willitchallenge heteronormativityortowhatextentwillLGBTplannerssimplycontributetonew orientalistformsofhomonormativityintheglobalSouth?Thesearesomeofthe questionsaddressedinthisbook.

Queryingneoliberalism

Currently,theliberatorypotentialof “queeringdevelopment”iscomplicatedby neoliberalpolitics,includinghowsomedevelopmentinstitutionsandnation-states areincreasingly embracinggayrights throughaneoliberallens,whereasothers continuetoviewsexual/genderdevianceasanaddedthreattowhattheyviewas thealready-existingimpositionof (Westernand/orimperialist)neoliberalagen- das.Whilequeerstudiesscholarsmightagreeonthefactthatthepleasuresofthe

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bodycannotbeseparatedfromtheworldoutside,howwestrategicallyintervene inpolitical,culturalandpolicyarenasvariesgreatlyandhasledtowidelydiver- gentviewsonqueerengagementswithstateandglobalinstitutions,particularly inneoliberalcontexts.Somesexualrightsactivistssafelyframetheirclaimsinthe contextofhegemoniceconomiclogic,leadingtocontradictoryoutcomesatbestfor thetargetedrecipientsoftheirpoliticalvictories.Forexample,inSouthAfrica,the EqualityProject(EP),alesbianandgayrightsorganization,successfullyacquired same-sexmarriagelegislationin2005bymakinganeoliberal-inspiredargument.

AnEPpamphletentitled“Marriage:anythinglessisnotequal–lesbianandgay peopledemandtherighttomarry”states:

Familyandcommunityinvolvementinpovertyalleviationisacentralobjec- tiveofwelfarepublicpolicy.Forthevastmajorityofpoorpeople,marriage allowsfamiliesandcommunitiestorecognizetherelationshipsoftheirmem- bersandprovidestheframeworkformutualassistance.Intheabsence ofa welfarestate,extendedfamilyandcommunitysupportiscrucialtothesurvival ofsingleparentfamilies,maintenanceofchildren,youngcouplesandtheaged.

Thisistrueforlesbianandgay,aswellasheterosexualpeople.Soundwelfare publicpolicywouldacknowledgethebenefitsrecognitionofsame-sexmar- riagewouldbringtofamilies,communitiesandthestate.

(quotedinOswin2007a:663–4) Thusasthe EPclaims torepresent“poor,black” SouthAfricans(asexamined byOswin)throughitsdefenseofthereprivatizationofwelfarepolicy,itgaineda benefitforgaysandlesbianswhileadheringtothedominantlogicofstateneolib- eraldevelopmentplanning,whichultimatelyhasledtohighlevelsofeconomic displacementforblack(andother)SouthAfricanseveninthepurportedlymore democraticpost-apartheidera.

Incontrasttodebatesonsame-sexmarriageinindustrializedcountries,where activistshaveoftenbeendividedalongthelinesof“gayrights”vs.“queer”plat- forms(seeDuggan2003),inSouthAfricatheembracingofgayrightswasviewed bysupportersasnecessaryinordertoforgeapost-apartheidnationalismdistinctto itsanti-Western,explicitlyhomophobicneighbor,Zimbabwe(Oswin2007b).

Incontrasttoearlierscholarshipthatcallsfora“queering”ofdevelopmentor globalizationasaradicalintervention(e.g.Gibson-Graham1996–7;Cruz-Malavé andManalansan2002),nation-statesareincreasinglyinthe businessof“queering”thesefieldsaswell,makingqueernessnormalandqueerstrategiesreformist moresothanrevolutionary.“Neoliberalismandgayandlesbian‘lifestyles’now seemtohappilyco-habitateandnation-statesareincreasinglywillingtoengage inapoliticsofrecognitioninthisnewdispensation,”geographerNatalieOswin argueswithrespecttoSouthAfrica(2007b:106).Incontrast,thepassageofthe anti-discriminationclauseinEcuador’s1997constitutionoccurredduetoshiftsin discourseconcerninghomosexuality,wherebynationalassemblymembersgener- allysidedwiththeproposalthathomosexualityisamentalhealthissueratherthan acrime,andthereforethislegallydefined“vulnerable”groupshouldbeprotected

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from discrimination(Lind2007).Inthiscase,theconstitutional victoryrested upondefininggaysandlesbians as“vulnerable”andas“inneed,”evenifonly forprotectionfromdiscrimination,ratherthanforaccesstomaterialbenefitsas inthecaseofSouthAfrica(wherequeeraccesstoeconomicdispensationcame largelyfollowingthe passageofsame-sexlegislationin2005).Thusanimpor- tantchallengetoourscholarshipandadvocacyconcernshowweframesexual rightsandgenderjusticestruggles,assingle-issueorcoalitionalmovements; as market-drivenorasanti-neoliberal;intermsofhowweuserelatedconstructions ofcommunityandpublic/privatespaceinourdiscursiveandpoliticalframeworks (Seidman2001;Joseph2002);andintermsofdefiningourgoalasstrugglingfor orbeyondaqueerpolitics.

Themes,debates,questions

Thisbookisdividedintothreeparts,reflectingthemainthemesofthevolume:

querying/queeringdevelopment,negotiating heteronormativityindevelopment institutions,andresistingglobalhegemonies.

Querying/queeringdevelopment:theories,representations, strategies

Inthispart,authorsquerydevelopmentasasetof discoursesandpracticesand attempttorethinknotionsofsexualandgendernormativitiesasrepresentedinthe realmsofeconomicdiscourse,developmentinstitutions,andculturalproduction.

Theiranalysesprovideimportantinsightsintotherelationshipbetweeninstitutional practices,representationsofqueerness,andthemakingofnon-normativesubjec- tivities.Tobegin,SusieJolly(Chapter1)tacklesseveralmythsconcerningsexand sexualityinthedevelopmentindustry,includingthemyththatthe development industryisnotinthebusinessofsex.Shearguesthatthedevelopmentindustryhas alwaysdealtwithsexuality-relatedissues,althoughusuallyonlyimplicitly,and negatively,inrelationtopopulationcontrol,disease,orviolence.Nowtheneedto respondtoHIV/AIDS,andtheincreasinglegitimacyofhumanrightsapproaches indevelopment,arecreatingspacesformoreopendiscussionofsexuality,butitis usuallystilldescribedasaproblem,inrelationtorisk,vulnerability,ill-healthand violationsofrights.Jollyprovidesaframeworkforexaminingsexualpleasureand development,arguingthatwe needtomoveawayfromexaminingessentialized identities(e.g.menwhohavesexwithmen;cross-dressers;lesbians)tothinking aboutsexualrightsandaccesstopleasure.

InChapter2,JyotiPurianalyzesrepresentations ofhijras/kinnars/arvanisin IndiaastheyhavebeeninvokedinHIV/AIDS,development,andtrans/national academicdiscourse.Shepointsout thathijrashavebeen glaringlyabsentfrom discoursesandpoliciesofdevelopmentbutincreasinglyvisibleinthepastdecade throughHIV/AIDSdiscoursesandinterventionprograms.Thishasmeantheight- enedsurveillanceandscrutinyofhijras,especiallybyNGOswithtiestothestateas wellasinternationaldonorsandagencies.Alongwithnon-transgenderedwomen,

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sexworkers,andmaletruckdrivers,hijrasarebecomingthemostmalignedgroups intheHIV/AIDSdiscourseinIndia.Atthesametime,Purinotes,anthropological discoursesofhijrasas“thirdgender”circulatewidelyandhavebeenofparticular interesttoconstructingtransnationalgenealogiesoftransgenderidentities. She arguesthatjustasHIV/AIDSdiscoursesmakehijrasvisibleasmetonymsofsexual transgression,sotoohavetrans/nationalacademicdiscoursestroublinglymarked themasmetonymsforsexualandculturaldifference,pointingouttheimplications oftheserepresentationsforframeworksofdevelopmentandforactivist-scholars whohaveembracedhijrasasanexpressionofliberationfromWesterndualisms.

SuzanneBergeron(Chapter3)thenaddressestheimaginedheterosexualnorm inthefieldofeconomics.Sheexaminessomeofthewaysthateconomists’ideas aboutheterosexualnormsareimplicatedintheirdefinitionsofwhatitmeansfor aneconomytodevelopandasocietytobecomemodern,focusinginparticular onneoclassicalandfeministmodelsofthehouseholdthathavehelpedtoframe gender-sensitivepolicyingeneralandattheWorldBankinparticular.AsBergeron notes,householdmodelshavewieldedsignificant influenceonhowinstitutions suchastheWorldBankmakesenseofgenderanddevelopment,asevidencedin theBank’sheavyemphasisonhouseholdmodelstoexplainthegenderdivision oflabor,genderdifferencesinpower,anddifferencesofmenandwomenwith regardto decision-makingabout household consumption,saving,and human capitalinvestment. UtilizingJudithButler’s(1990)concept of“a heterosexual matrix,”sheshowsthattherepresentationof genderinthesehouseholdmodels takeforgrantedthattheunitunderdiscussionisahusbandandwifethatengage incomplementarygenderroleswithaboundednuclearfamily,withtheoverall taskofhighlightingthewaysthattheheterosexualitypresumedbyeconomistsis artificialandunstable.

Negotiatingheteronormativityindevelopmentinstitutions

Thesecond partaddresses howindividualsnegotiateheteronormativity within developmentinstitutionssuchastheWorldBank,UnitedNationsagencies,state developmentagencies,communityorganizations,andnon-governmentalorganizations.Theauthorsaddresshowdevelopmentpractitionersandadvocatesthemselves necessarilynegotiateheteronormativerepresentationsofthefamily,community, nation,andstateindevelopment practicesandpolicy frameworks,sometimes reproducingorientalistunderstandingsofsexualitywhileatothertimeschalleng- ingthem.AndilGosine(Chapter4)providesanexaminationofGLOBE,thestaff organizationfor“Gay,LesbianorBisexualEmployees”attheWorldBank.Asa catalystfordiscussionsonsexualitiesanddevelopmentattheBank,keyGLOBE membershavehelpedshapetheBank’spoliciesonHIV/AIDSandsexualhealth inAfrica andthroughouttheglobalSouth, andsomehavealsocontributedto spearheadingan“MSMmainstreaming”program.Gosineutilizesanethnographic approachtorelateGLOBE’sstoryandanalyzehowconversationsaboutsexuali- tiesarebeingtakenupindevelopmentorganizations,withimportantimplications forWorldBankpoliciesthattargetLGBTpopulations.GLOBEisaninteresting

Development, Sexual Rights and Global Governance

Development, Sexual Rights and Global Governance

RIPE series in global political economy

Series Editors: Louise Amoore (University of Durham, UK), Jacqueline Best (University of Ottawa, Canada), Paul Langley (Northumbria University, UK), and Leonard Seabrooke (Copenhagen Business School, Denmark)

Development, Sexual Rights and Global Governance

Edited by Amy Lind

Contents

Contributors

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Introduction

Development, global governance, and sexual subjectivities

Amy Lind