Soil and water conservation
research in the United States with particular reference to arable land
1Paul ]. Zwerman and George R. Free
Associate Professors of Soil Conservation and Soil Technology respectively, Cornell University, lthäca, N. Y., USA
The meaning of the term «soil and water conservation» as it is used in the United States has gone through an evolution. The ealier term of «soil conservation» was most frequently used when the general meaning was that of soil protection. ( 17) The impli- cation being that the soil must be protected against erosion. This definition was in kee- ping with the early emphasis of soil conservation work.
The Broad Concept
As practical programs developed it became increasingly clear that management of the soil for protection also necessarily involved management of water. Hence the term
«soil and water conservation» came to be utilized for that phase of resource manage- ment which had to do with maintaining or improving the soil and water resource. This more inclusive concept was also made necessary by the extensive practical operations that have been carried out by the nearly twenty-eight hundred or more soil ·conservation districts. They are cooperating with the U. S. Soil Conservation Service and related agencies.
Farm people have not been alone in their interest for better managed soil and water resources. Urban groups, local, regional, and national have been active in bringing about a better utilization of water. These groups have promoted campaigns to clean up stream pollution and to improve land use through the development of recreational faci- lities. In arid and semi-arid regions the multiple use of water for power production, irri- gation, and recreation are weil established. These multiple use benefits are generally considered to be a part of the planning ·of the whole economy for a particular region.
(18)
1 Contribution from the Dept. of Agronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., USA, Agronomy paper number 460, and from the Eastern Soil and Water Conservation Research Branch, Ithaca, N.Y., USA.
«Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Anstalt für das forstliche Versuchswesen, Bd. 35, Heft l»
151
Early lnterest
Despite the exploitation of the land by ma:ny pioneer farmers, there had always been a far-sighted minority group who advocated conservation of the soil resource. Some of the writings of these early American soil conservationists have been recorded. (12)
At the start of the 20th century such soil scientists as Hilgard, Hopkins, and King voiced warnings on the need for conserving the soil. (8, 9, 10) This was during a period of westward expansion when new land could be settled. Despite the abundant supply of land, these soil scientists visualized an ultimate impairment of the soil resource. Because conservation was not popular nor considered economically feasible at the time, these warnings went unheeded.
Early in the 20th century, work was begun at several of the state agricultural experi- ment stations to measure the influence of various crops upon the rate of erosion of the soil. This early work was done in Ohio and Mis~ouri. (2, 3) lt served as a guide for those people who later worked for the Federal government and carried on this type of research.
Development of the Modem Program
In 1929 a small grant or credit of money was made available by the Federal govern- ment to the Bureau of Plant lndustry for the study of soil erosion losses. ( 16) At this time ten original Federal erosion control experiment stations were established in various representative areas in cooperation with the respective state agricultural experiment sta- tions. Now measured soil losses could be substituted for previous estimates.
The early results of these erosion experiment stations were reported by Bennett. ( 1) The qutstanding findings were the relatively enormous loss of topsoil under conditions which were thought to be of little or no significance in inducing erosion. Thus a crop rotation of wheat, kafir, fallow, wheat at Hays, Kansas resulted in 16 tons of soil loss per acre per year. At Tyler, Texas a crop rotation of cotton, corn, and lespedeza re- sulted in a soil loss of 17 tons per acre annually.
In 1933 thirty-four erosion demonstration areas were started under what was called the Soil Erosion Service in the Department of Interior. The purpose was to apply the practical results which had been found from the erosion control experiment stations.
While the demonstration areas were primarily for the purpose of gaining experience in these practical matters of applying erosion control practices to farms, they were also used to collect some information on a watershed basis and to gain experience with wa- tershed areas. Rain gauges were established over the demonstration areas and stream gauges were installed. ( 19)
Concurrently with the development of the original thirty-four demonstration areas a comprehensive research program was inaugurated, and an erosion reconnaissance sur- vey was carried out. Public interest in soil conservation had reached an all time high.
Drought and land misuse in the Great Plains Area had led to dust storms that reached
as far as Washington, D. C. The congress of the United States was generous in its sup- port of soil and water conservation operations and research.
The original ten erosion experiment stations together with additional state and fede- ral cooperatively operated erosion control experiment stations were combined into a di- vision of erosion experiment stations. A watershed or hydrology division was estab- lished. A geological division was formed. This division studied sedimentation and geo- morphology. A climatic section was formed. The economics of soil erosion and erosion control were studied in cooperation with the various states. All of these divisions pur- sued their studies in relation to the problem of conserving the soil and water resour- ces. ( 15) In order to gain a better understanding of the problems related to establishing practices, additional demonstration areas were also set up. That period also saw the be- ginning of what was to become the ACP or Federal cost sharing with the farmer for the application of conservation practices to private land. (19)
In 1937 the first Soil Conservation District was organized. (19) These districts have the status of governmental subdivisions of the various states. Formation is voluntary.
The control rests with the local farmers. They can and usually do ask for the assistance of Federal, State and Local Agencies in technical and educational matters. Thus Federal and State agencies assist in conducting the program for the district. The role of these agencies is that of cooperators. The formation of these governmental units was an im- portant step in the application of conservation practices to the land.
With the. subsequent action on the part of state governments, the soil conservation district movement spread gradually over the United States. Thus in terms of the research problem, practically all areas in the United States would,have to be considered from the point of view of developing a practical soil and water conservation operations program.
This need, together with the coming of W orld War II, brought about changes in the research program. Research funds were necessarily somewhat curtailed. In order to avoid excessive overhead costs, the entire federal research program was closely allied with the work of the state agricultural experiment stations. Even though the general di- rection of this program still remained with the research division of the U. S. Soil Con- servation Service.
Because of the wartime interest in food production, more practical aspects of the research program were given priority. These aspects included drainage, irrigation, and tillage. Previously more emphasis had been placed on studies related to soil erosion, runoff, hydrology, and geological aspects.
Most of the investigations related to management of soil and water for crop produc- tion including the influence of fertilizer were still retained in the Bureau of Plant ln- dustry. They were not included in the field of rese1,1rch of soil conservation. However, all of the Federal work continued to be organized along the nature of line projects for the entire United States. That is to say an attempt was made to cover the range of con- ditions being investigated in a particular line of research in the entire country.
Reorganization of Research
lmmediately after the war period it became apparent that the entire research organi- zation should be subject to review and rcorganization. As a consequence of this activity it was decided to combine the U. S. Soil Survey with the Conservation Surveys Division of the U. S. Soil Conservation Service so Lhat the Soil Survey and related research re- mained in the Soil Conservation Service and continuecl to work on problems related to soil classification ancl soil profile characteristics. The soil survey also had the responsi- bility for producing the necessary maps for the conservation operation oI putting prac- tices on Lhe land. The remaining portion oI the research clivision oI the U. S. Soil Con- servation Service was incorporated along with other research agencies in the U. S. Dept.
of Agriculture into a Soil and Water Conservation Research Division of the newly esta- blished Agricultural Research Service.
The predecessor of the Agricultural Research Service was known as the Agricultural Research Administration. This organization was founded in 1947. lt had been advisory rather than administrative.
The Soil and W ater Conservation Research Division of the Agricultural Research Service administers a national program of research in the field of soil, water, Iertilizer, and the technology of agricultural watersheds. As of the 22nd of July 1958 this organi- zation had the following subdivisions:
Eastern Soil and Water Management Research Branch (31 Eastern States and Puerto Rico)
Irrigation and Drainage Section RunofI and Erosion Control Section Soil Tillage and Tillage Practice Section Soil Plant Relationship Section
Soil Fertility and Liming Section
Western Soil and Water Management Research Brauch ( 17 Western States, Hawaii and Alaska)
Irrigation Practices and Requirement Section Soil Chemistry and Microbiology Section Irrigated Land Soil Fertility Section Dry Land Soil Fertility Section
Dry Land Moisture Conservation Section Runoff and Erosion Control Section Irrigation and Drainage Facilities Section Watershed Technology Research Branch
W atershed Runoff lnvestigations Section Aquiier-Streamflow Relationship Section Hydrograph Analysis Section
Sedimentation Section Channel Stability Section Hydraulics of Structures Section Fertilizer Investigations Research Branch
Fertilizer Materials Section Mixed Fertilizer Section Liming Materials Section
Fertilizer Supplies and Consumption Trends Section Analytical Laboratory Section
The following groups are also in or closely related to the Soil and W ater Conservation Research Organization:
U. S. Plant, Soil, and Animal Nutrition Laboratory, lthaca, New York U. S. Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, California
Various Pioneering Research Groups
Land and Water Research Branch of the Farm Economics Research Division of the Agricultural Research Service.
With the separation of the action agencies and the major portion of the research pro- gram into two separate org!lnizations, close liaison became even more important than before. As a part of these liaison activities research needs of the operations program are assembled by the Soil Conservation Service and relayed to the Federal Soil and Water Conservation Research Division and to the State Agricultural Experiment Station. Mee- ting the research needs of the soil and water conservation operations program consti- tutes apart of the research activities of both the state and federal groups.
Flood control measures have been initiated on small watersheds by enactment of the W atershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act. This is known as Public Law 566. By the end of 1957 over 300 small watersheds were being improved to prevent floods. ( 4) This program again involves cooperation between local, state, and federal organizations.
Accomplishments and Future Developments
The history, interest and background of soil and water conservation research in the United States has been briefly presented. lt is also in order to indicate that agriculture of the United States underwent an enormous change during this period. (11) Tractors replaced horses and mules. Total crop or arable land increased up until 1920. The acreage of this land has since remained constant. Yields per acre have continued to in- crease after 1920 and especially so after 1940. In general numbers of farms have con- tinued to decline while the size of farms has increased.
Space permits only a brief review of the representative accomplishments in the field of soil and water conservation research. At an early date rainfall frequency and inten-
sity was summarized. (21) This summary has been of great value in the design of small agricultural structures. Subsequently the hazard of erosion has been and is being eva- luated under a variety of conditions. ( 20) These conditions include such factors as crop rotation, slope, past erosion, and soil type.
Long time basic research has been carried out on many aspects of the hydrologic cycle. Lysimeter studies have been used to evaluate the water balance. This same water balance has been studied on a variety of watersheds. (14) The influence of erosion and sedimentation on land forms (7) and reservoir sedimenlation has also been studied. (6) In the more practical field of tillage, drainage, and irrigation, advances have also been made. lmproved methods of stubble mulch tillage have been developed under semi-arid conditions. (22) The limitations of this form of tillage under humid conditions is being studied. Basic research on all tillage operations continues. Drainage research has been directed toward evaluating the relative merits of various types of drainage systems. A comprehensive recent review of the work in this field exists. ( 5) Irrigation research has covered many aspects of irrigation. These include methods of water application, rates, and frequency of application.
The future dcvelopment of research in the United States would indicate that there will continue to bc a pracLical program of research directed toward lowering the cost of agricultural produclion. There will also be a basic research program which will ultima- tely supply the information for developing an cven better praclical solution to the many problems related to soil and water conservalion. ( 13)
Die Forschung auf den Gebieten der Bodenerhaltung und der Pflege des Wasserhaushaltes in den Vereinigten Staaten
(Zusammenfassung)
Der Aufsatz zeigt, wie sich die Erkenntnis der Notwendigkeit, Boden und Wasser als Naturschätze zu nachhaltiger Nutzung zu erhalten, in Nordamerika entwickelte, wäh- rend sich die landwirtschaftliche Struktur des Landes gleichzeitig stark veränderte.
Diese Entwicklung führte zur Gründung zahlreicher Forschungsstätten und Amts- stellen, deren Aufgabe in der Verbreitung der neugewonnenen Erfahrungen bestand.
Zum Zwecke einer besseren Koordination der Arbeit dieser weitverzweigten Organisa- tionen wurde nach dem letzten Weltkrieg das ganze System reorganisiert und die be- tref /enden Organisationen wurden entweder dem /,andwirtschaftlichen Forschungsdienst oder dem Bodenerhaltungsdienst unterstellt.
Abschließend werden die wichtigsten Forschungsgebiete aufgezählt, in welchen hauptsächlich die für den Ackerbau bedeutendsten Erfahrungen gesammelt werden.
Des travaux entrepris aux Etats-Unis dans le domaine du maintien des sols et du bilan des eaux
(Resume)
Cette communication montre a quel point on a reconnu en Amerique du Nord, alors que la structure agricole du pays subissait de profonds changements, la necessite de con- siderer l' eau et le sol come des biens precieux de la nature, qu'il importe de conserver, afin de pouvoir en user de far;on durable.
Le developpement de ces idees conduisit a la creation d'un grand nombre d'instituts de recherches et d' etablissements officiels dont la tache etait de repandre les fruits des nouvelles experiences. En vue d'une meilleure coordination des travaux, taut le systeme de recherches fut remanie apres la derniere guerre et les differentes organisations furent confiees soit au service de la recherche agricole, soit a celui du maintien des sols.
En conclusion, les auteurs enumerent les dif ferents domaines ou s' etendent les re- cherches, qui sont principalement entreprises en vue d'intensifier la culture des champs.
Le ricerche nel campo della conservazione del terreno e della regolazione del regime idrico negli Stati Uniti
(Riassunto)
L'articolo dimostra come si siano sviluppate nell'America del Nord le nozioni sulla necessita di salvaguardare il terreno e le acque, quali tesori naturali da utilizzare in modo duraturo, mentre andava contemporaneamente e fortemente modificandosi la struttura agricola del Paese.
Questa evoluzione ha determinato il sorgere di numerose stazioni di ricerche e di uf fici, il cui compito consiste nella divulgazioni delle nuove esperienze. Alla scopo di meglio coordinare il lavoro di queste complesse organizzazioni, si e proceduto nell'ul- timo dopoguerra a una riorganizzazione dell'intero sistemq, e le singole organizzazioni sono state sottoposte ai servizi di ricerche agrarie oppure ai servizi per la conservazione del terreno.
lnfine vengono elencati le principali regioni di ricerche, nelle quali si raccolgono principalmente le esperienze piu importanti per la coltivazione de~ campi.
References
1. B e n n et t, H. H.: Dynamic Action of Rains in Relation to Erosion in Humid Regions, Trans.
Am. Geophys. Un. 15th Annual Meeting pp 474-488, 1934. ' 2. Co ff e y, G. W.: An Erosion Study, Jour. Am. Soc. of Agron. Vol. 5, pp 230-232, 1919.
3. Du 1 e y, F. L., and Mi 11 er, M. F.: Erosion and Surface Runoff Under Different Soil Con- ditions, Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bul. No. 63, 1923.
4,. Dy k es, J. C.: The Small Watershed, Agr. Eng. Vol. 35, pp 784-785, Nov. 1954.
5. Drainage of Agricultural Lands, Am. Soc. of Agronomy 1957.
6. E a k in, H. M.: Silting of Reservoirs, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Tee. Bul. No. 524, July 1936.
7. Happ, S.C., Rittenhouse, G., and Dobson, G.C.: Some Principles of Accelerated Stream and Valley Sedimentation, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Tee. Bul. No. 695, May 1940.
8. Hi 1 gar d, E. W.: Soils, The Macmillian Co., 1907.
9. Ho p k ins, C. G., and Re ad h im er, J. E.: Soil Improvement for the Worn Hill Lands of Southern Illinois, Illinois Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 115, 1907.
10. K i n g, F. H.: The Soil, Its Nature Relations and Fundamental Principles of Management, Macmillian 1898.
11. Land Utilization - A Graphie Summary, Census of Agriculture, 1950.
12. M c Don a I d, A.: Early American Conservationists, U. S. Dept. Agr. Mise. publ. No. 449, Oc- tober 194,1.
13. Ne 1 so n, L. B.: Building Sounder Conservation and Water Management Research Programs for the Future, Proc. Soil Sei. Soc. of Am. Vol. 22, pp 355-358, 1958.
14. Ra ms er, C. E.: Hydrologie Investigations on Selected Watersheds, Soil Conservation, Vol. 3, pp. 215-218, February 1938.
15. Special Research Issue, Soil Conservation, Vol. 3, February 1938.
16. United States Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Sub-Committee of. 1928 Hearings on Agricultural Appropriations Bill for 1930, U. S. (70th) Congress, 2nd Session, pp. 310-330.
17. Van Der s a 1, W. R.: What Do You Mean: Soil Conscrvation, Jour. of Soil and Water Cons.
Vol. 8, pp. 153-157, July 1953.
18. Wh i t e, G. F.: A New Stage in Resource History, Jour. of Soil and Water Cons. Vol. 7, pp. 228-232, September 1953.
19. W i 11 i am s, D. A.: Crops and Soils in Conservation, Proc. Soil Sei. Soc. of Am. Vol. 22, pp. 350-355, 1958.
20. W j s c h m e i er, W. H., Sm i t h, D. D., and U h I an d, R. E.: Evaluation of Factors in the Soil Loss Equation, Agr. Eng. Vol. 39, pp. 459-462, August 1958.
21. Y a r n c 11, D. L.: Rainfall Intcnsity Frequency Data, U. S. Dept. of Agr. Mise. Pub!. No. 204, August 1935. ·
22. Z i n g g, A. W., and Wh i t f i e 1 d, C. J.: A Summary of Research Experience with Stubble Mulch Farming in the Western States. Tech. Bul. No. 1166, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Octo- ber 1957.
Figure 1
Notched weir at Cathedral Peak Research Station recording base-flow discharge, showing type used at all Forest Hydrological Research Stations in South Africa.
Note wire-mesh to prevent debris from clogging notch and recorder hut on right.
Figure 2
Notched weir at Cathedral Peak Research Station recording spate-discharge.
Note recorder hut and stilling pool.
