A TTENTION - DRIVEN LEARNING

The empirical findings of this dissertation may speak in favor of models which see IDS as a promoter of attention. As the role of IDS has been identified as attention-grabbing spotlight (e.g., Kuhl, 2007), attention seems to take over a central role in infants’ early language acquisition. The findings by Schreiner et al. (2016) support this idea. In particular, parental reports on infants’ attention towards the source of the stories presented at home revealed a positive correlation with infants’

segmentation success from ADS stimuli. This highlights the fact that overt attention may be a valuable tool guiding infants’ learning from ADS. Hence, infants may learn from a much larger range of input, including overheard adult conversations provided they overtly attend to it. Similarly, the findings by Schreiner and Mani (in revision) suggest that infants who are able to segment words from fluent ADS stimuli demonstrated higher success in adding meaning to these segmented word forms³. Consequently, infants who attend to ADS are also able to segment and learn words from this register.

According to the social-gating model introduced by Kuhl (2007), social interaction takes over a central role in infants’ language acquisition. Infants are attracted by IDS and, therefore, they attend to and learn from this input. As infants were not only able to learn from IDS but also demonstrated successful learning from

3 Note, that infants seem only able to demonstrate this successful learning of ADS word-object associations given they are tested in IDS. The implication of this finding will be discussed in more detail later in the discussion.

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION

ADS, the findings of the studies by Schreiner et al. (2016) and Schreiner and Mani (in revision) may at first glance seem to counter Kuhl’s proposal. Yet, closer inspection reveals that these findings may even extend this model in the extent to which infants’

attention and arousal to speech, in general, impacts learning. As attention to the ADS stories at home seemed to modulate infants’ later word recognition abilities, overt attention may demonstrate an important tool in learning from ADS stimuli. Thus, infants are not just able to learn from IDS but, instead, they are able to learn from all language input, that is IDS and ADS, provided they are interested in this input. The fact that infants’ own interest is a prerequisite for successful learning may have driven infants’ response in the test phase of the word learning study (Schreiner &

Mani, in revision).

In her model, Kuhl (2007) identifies social agents as a necessary factor in order for infants to learn in natural language learning contexts by providing referential information that facilitate language learning. Importantly, she bases her assumptions on the findings of phonetic learning after foreign language exposure (Tsao, Kuhl, &

Lui, 2003). In this study, infants only demonstrated successful learning if they were exposed to the language stimuli during live exposure with an experimenter but not if they were presented with the language stimuli through television or audio recordings.

Contrary to this, the findings of Schreiner et al. (2016) and Schreiner and Mani (in revision) suggest that live interaction of a social agent may not be necessary in order to segment and learn new words. Infants in the study by Schreiner et al. (2016) were able to recognize the words from the stories of the extended exposure at home phase, even though, there was no agent interacting with the infants when the pre-recorded stories were played, thus, overhearing the speech stimuli without any additional contextual support being available. Similarly, the word learning study by Schreiner and Mani (in revision) did not involve a live teaching session nor was a

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION

social agent present in the training videos. This may suggest that while the presence of a social agent is not necessary, interest in speech signals – which is in itself a social factor – does drive learning. However, the child and an experimenter played with both objects prior to watching the training videos in the laboratory. Therefore, it remains open, whether infants’ interest in learning the names of the objects might have been impacted by the prior exposure to the objects in the interactive play phase.

While Schreiner et al. (2016) and Tsao, Kuhl, and Lui, (2003) equally employed an extended exposure, the first study familiarized infants with their language stimuli at home whereas the latter study was performed in the laboratory only. From this, we may assume that the success of word segmentation without social interaction may have been impacted by the naturalistic exposure at infants’

own home. Counter to this are, however, the findings of the word learning study from IDS and ADS by Schreiner and Mani (in revision), which suggest that infants may even learn in laboratory situations without a social agent present. Accordingly, the difference in findings on the necessity of social agents may not be driven by the fact that these studies employed different kinds of exposure.

Nevertheless, it is crucial to note that the studies by Schreiner et al. (2016) and Schreiner and Mani (in revision) investigate first language acquisition, whereas Tsao, Kuhl, and Lui (2003) have investigated infants’ phonetic discrimination abilities of a foreign language. This may suggest that, contrary to Kuhl’s (2007) proposal, first language acquisition may, under certain situations, e.g., extended exposure at home, not require a social agent for successful learning. Therefore, the findings of the current thesis raise the question whether social agents are as crucial for early language acquisition as proposed in the social-gating model by Kuhl (2007).

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION

In summary, the social-gating model (Kuhl, 2007) may overemphasize the role of social agents in early language acquisition, however, the fact that infants’ interest in speech drives learning may be support for the sociality of language learning. In addition, in order to account for language learning from ADS, the model needs to be adapted from attention driving language learning from IDS to attention driving language learning fromall kinds of input, namely IDS and ADS.

The emergentist coalition model (Hollich et al., 2000) suggests that in the process of acquiring a language, infants use multiple cues, which are weighted differently and that the weighting of these cues changes over time. Importantly, the model argues that language acquisition happens in two phases. In the first phase, the immature infant may rely heavily on attentional cues, whereas with the start of the second phase, social and linguistic cues become available to the child. The fact that attention has been identified as cue available right from the start is supported by the findings of the current dissertation. Infants starting at 7.5-months of age were able to segment words from both IDS and ADS, with attention being a primary modulator of infants’ segmentation success. The model defines perceptual salience and temporal contiguity as the early cues shaping successful word learning. In terms of the findings of this dissertation, exaggerated IDS may, therefore, be perceptually salient to infants driving their attention to this artificial register, which is not part of the range of input German infants are exposed to. Also, ADS may be perceptually salient from relatively early on because parents don’t speak to their children that much using ADS but later on, they may use more ADS with their children resulting in ADS becoming less salient to the child. Moreover, it is important to note that perceptional salience is not objective. Rather, it is bound to vary across individuals: What may be salient for one child may not be salient for another. And this individual variation may be the reason for some infants attending to ADS while others don't.

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION

According to the model, exaggerated prosody as provided by IDS reveals a linguistic cue that may only be accessible to the infant as it moves to a more mature state. But the large amount of research on infants’ register preferences suggests that this exaggerated prosody of IDS is accessible right after birth with infants preferring IDS over ADS (Cooper & Aslin, 1990; Pegg et al., 1992). In line with this, the empirical findings of the current dissertation provide evidence that exaggerated IDS and typical IDS⁴, may be accessible from relatively early onwards despite the absence of any social cues.

As infants were equally able to segment words from IDS and ADS, this model underestimates the role of language input other than IDS. Note that successful ADS segmentation was found even without the presence of social cues. Similarly, the findings of 18-month-old infants’ successful word learning from IDS and ADS suggest that both registers are equally accessible, again despite the absence of social cues.

Therefore, the emergentist-coalition may not entirely grasp the early accessibility of different kinds of language input. At the same time, the estimations about the developmental course of the accessibility of such cues may be inadequate.

According to the findings of this dissertation, unlike the assumptions of the emergentist coalition model, we propose that all cues may be accessible from early on. As suggested by emergentist coalition, these cues may be weighted differently in the course of development but they may also be dependent on the specific language learning situations.

In terms of curiosity-driven learning, the empirical findings of this dissertation demonstrate evidence that IDS may offer extrinsic motivation that guides infants’

attention to the relevant aspects within the speech signal (Dominey & Dodane, 2003;

Gottlieb, Oudeyer, Lopes, & Baranes, 2013). The fact that infants are extrinsically

4 Note that infants did not demonstrate successful segmentation of fluent typical IDS after short-term exposure but seems to be dependent upon extended exposure at home

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION

motivated to attend to IDS may also be revealed by the large number of studies demonstrating preferential listening of IDS over ADS (Cooper & Aslin 1990; Cooper et al., 1997; Fernald, 1985; Pegg et al., 1992). On the one hand, German-learning infants as young as 7.5-months are extrinsically motivated by IDS. This register attracts and maintains their attention in a way that they successfully extract phonological word forms from fluent speech. On the other hand, if infants are intrinsically motivated, they may also overtly shift their attention to input of the ADS register and successfully learn from this comparatively monotone register (see Figure 16). The study by Schreiner et al. (2016) suggests that infants between 7.5- and 9-months are able to extract words from ADS they just overhear. According to their parental reports, infants who attended more to the ADS stimuli played at home were later better able to recognize the familiarized words in the laboratory. Thus, infants are active participants whose intrinsic but also extrinsic motivation helps them in seeking the situations they wish to learn from (Oudeyer & Smith, 2016).

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION

Figure 16 Schematic of curiosity-driven learning from IDS and ADS input.

Contrary to curiosity-driven learning which envisages the infant as an active participant, Csibra (2010) pictures the infant as a passive participant whose attention is attracted by ostensive cues. He assumes that IDS may provide such an ostensive cue attracting infants’ attention by informing them that they are being talked to. In line with this, 18-month-old German infants of the study by Schreiner and Mani (in revision) were only able to demonstrate their word learning abilities from ADS if they were tested in IDS. Infants at this age may assume that a question is directed at them only if it is articulated with IDS properties. Hence, if asked over a loudspeaker without additional information of a social agent present (e.g., eye contact, gaze, pointing, joint attention), they might simply just not feel addressed and, consequently, don’t respond to the task. This underlines that IDS may be an important ostensive cue that tells infants that they are being talked to and guides their attention to the infant-directed language uttered by the speaker.

language input

IDS ADS

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION

In conclusion, the empirical findings of this dissertation suggest that attention does not only play an important role in early language acquisition from IDS but also from ADS. While IDS clearly seems to have a facilitatory role drawing infants’

attention to the relevant speech stimuli supporting current attention-driven theories, ADS may also be exploited by the infants given they are able to overtly shift their attention to it. Hence, extending Kuhl’s (2007) social-gating model, infants may learn from all language input provided they attend to it. The role of ADS input may, therefore, be largely underestimated and is mostly not directly addressed in current theories of early language acquisition. Curiosity-driven learning, which does not directly address learning from different kinds of input, may provide a fundamental basis, which may be easily extended to account for IDS and ADS input. In particular, infants are active participants who are extrinsically attracted by IDS and may be intrinsically motivated to shift their attention towards ADS, thus, seeking the situations they are willing to learn from. Still, future research is needed to further explore the particular roles of IDS and ADS in early language acquisition and to further adapt and fine-tune the existing models thereof.