TRAVELLING SPEED

-

average .~alue for timetable

- -

timetable 1971-72

n

-

^{1 2 2 trains}

3 nodes in the network distances of nodes lgi

-

400/200/200

Figure 5 . 5 NUMBER OF T R A C T I V E U N I T S 3 E P E ? I D I N G ON T R A V E L L I N G S P E E D

Source: [ I 1 I

F i 7 ' l r e 5 . 6 SPEED 3 P ? I ! I I Z A T I O N

S o u r c e : S t a t i s t i c a l Handbook o f J a p a n , 1 9 7 7

F i g u r e ^{5 . 7} GROWTH OF TRAIN SPEED

(between Tokyo and Osaka, 5 1 5 krn) 5 . 3 . 2 S a f e t y

I n g c n c r a l , s a f e t y s t a n d a r d s f o r r a i l w a y s a r c v e r y s c v c r c [ 2 3 , 5 2 ] b u t , even t o d a y , man-made r e g u l a t i o n s a r e r e l i e d upon and s a f e t y measures a r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n a n o v e r a l l s y s t e m s approach. The New Tokaido Line shows t h a t b e s t r e s u l t s i n s a f e t y c a n be a c h i e v e d o n l y by w e l l d e s i g n e d s y s t e m s , and t h a t man i s , a t t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l of t e c h n o l o g y , t h e weak p o i n t . The s u c c e s s of the r e l i a b i l i t y approach i n s a f e t y - r e l a t e d s y s t e m s i s made e v i d e n t . Not o n l y h a s new t e c h n o l o g y l i k e e l e c t r o n i c s been used w e l l , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e l o n g l i f e t i m e e x p e r i e n c e o f r a i l w a y s , b u t , r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h h a s been done on human f a c t o r s and con- t r o l o f human b e h a v i o r . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f h a z a r d s t o t h e s y s - tem have been c o n s i d e r e d a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e , f o r example, e a r t h - quake and typhoon warning s y s t e m s , c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t i n t r u d e r s , and o b s t a c l e warning d e v i c e s e t c . The Ilew Tokaido Line i s a f a i l - s o f t system which, i n c a s e of f a i l u r e s , p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e t e r i o r a t e s i n performance r a t h e r t h e n c o l l a p s i n g c o m p l e t e l y o r becoming dan- g e r o u s .

A s shown i n s t a t i s t i c s , t h e J K R i s one of t h e r a i l w a y s ranked h i g h e s t c o n c e r n i n g s a f e t y [ 7 , 6 ] . T h i s i s a l s o t r u e f o r t h e con- v e n t i o n a l l i n e s of J N R ; t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g c r o s s i n g s w i t h r o a d

traffic. The much used system of the New Tokaido Line shows that, not only can the highest safety standards be achieved economically, but also safety in the long run is more economical. Research to- wards further improvement of safety and reliability is continuing [ 2 8 1 : a system is "safe" if dangerous effects are considered neq- ligible in the application. In the above sense, fail-safe means

In railways it was (and is in many countries) common to apply a deterministic approach to safety-related systems. Of course,

It is a knowledge acquired by experience and by comparison or ana- lytical deduction, not by access to all required information. This is also true for the well designed system of the New Tokaido Line

[103]. Recently, the aART project in San Francisco [ 3 7 1 showed how

things can go wrong if this recurring process of step-by-step trial, [31,30,29]. Figure 5.8 shows such a structure as an example [701.

In some countries a trend can be noticed in the courts to

The J N R was the first railway in the world which transferred, to a great extent, the results gained in the realibility approach

optimum i n p r a c t i c e h a s t o be l e a r n e d d u r i n g a s y s t e m ' s

d e s i g n . They c a u s e a n u n c o m f o r t a b l e c h a n g e i n p r e s s u r e when t h e t r a i n e n t e r s a t u n n e l d u e t o t h e i r s o f t b o d i e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e c a r body is t i g h t l y c l o s e d and c l i m a t i z e d .

A s s t a t e d i n [ 3 4 1 : " t h e most c o m p r e h e n s i v e s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s a v a i l a b l e t o v e h i c l e d e s i g n e r s i s t h a t c o n c l u d e d i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s u n d e r t h e a u s p i c i e s o f t h e J N R . "

F i g u r e 5 . 9 shows t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l o f t h e l a b o r p o p u l a - t i o n a t JNR a s b e i n g q u i t e b e t t e r t h e n a t many o t h e r r a i l w a y s . Not o n l y i n r a i l w a y s , b u t a l s o i n o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m s , e d u c a t i o n i s r e c o g n i z e d as a v i t a l a s p e c t f o r f u r t h e r a d v a n c e .

s o u r c e : JNR y e a r

F i g u r e 5 . 9 LABOR POPULATION SY SCBOOL LEVELS AT J N R

4

Education at JNR Institutions

Employees are removed from their jobs temporarily to be educa- ted and trained at JNR's own schools set up for the purpose.

Education at JNR's institutions is further divided as follows:

Regular traininq: New recruits and candidated for promotion are given needed education and training under this program.

Reassignment traininq: Employees are given this training when newly developed equipment and installations are introduced for modernization and rationalization or when they are to be re- assigned to different kinds of jobs.

Refresher courses: As technical innovations call for higher- level and diversified knowledge and skills, the employees concerned are made to attend these courses to up-level their knowledge and skills for adequate job performance.

The above listed training is conducted at the Central Railway Training School attached to the Head Office and at local railway training schools attached to Railway operating divisions. JNR's training institutions are outlined in Table 5.5.

On-the-job traininq

Employees are trained at the places of work by their super- visors in the knowledge and skills required in pezforming their daily jobs.

Table 5.5: Oucline of JNR'S Training Institutions

.. ^,

NO. d

- ^~n

^{1033 Y - I}

t

Source: JNR, Rail International, Monthly Review, April 1979, Vol. 4., pp. 366/12.

Education at External Institutions way service. It may be described as an economical comfort with optimized effectiveness. As mentioned already, handicapped passen- gers are considered. A new standard was set for the railways by the possibility of telephone calls from passengers on the train advance, but the name of the next station can be read on board with the station name on the platform just passing.

At the start of the New Tokaido Line, the seat reservation system was the most advanced for railways. But this is still true at present because it is now operated by the telephone reservation system MARS 1 5 0 with audio response from the computer.

The passenger information organization at the platform is famous. The automatic stop control for trains allows passengers to wait just in front of the right door of the right car with the seat reserved [ I 5 1

.

In general it may be said that travellers from other countries are impressed by the comfort of the New Tokaido Line, which is no luxury!

5 . 3 . 6 Accessibilitv

The first category, accessibility, means desiqning a route which would provide the greatest number of people the possibility of usage. It becomes obvious, purely on economic means, that high speed service can not be offered to every city in a country, or to every city alonq a specified route. A trade-off has to be made which takes into account not only the economic costs of such a system, but also the social costs and benefits.

The Shinkansen experience has shown the importance of route design to ensure maximum usage of its vehicles. The Tokaido corridor is ideally suited for a high speed route--it contains the major population centers of Japan, these centers are far enough apart to allow maximum certified speeds of relatively long duration, and urban center to urban center service can be offered.

..

Indeed, the Tokaido Shinkansen can be looked at as one of the most econom- ically profitable lines in existence in the world today, with over 1 billion passengers carried since ints introduction. Serious con- sideration is being given to the construction of yet another To- kaido Shinkansen system to complement the one currently in exist- ence, the demand being so great.

Even though the existing Shinkansen lines allow a large amount of accessibility for residents in the major urban centers of Japan, people in other areas of Japan would also like to have the possibil- ity of using this service. Accessibility to existing Shinkansen lines is increased by coordinating connections between normal narrow-gauge lines and Shinkansen lines, although narrow-gauge service is more time consuming for the passengers. There is also increased pressure in Japan to have a nation-wide Shinkansen net- work, allowing people in the outermost regions of Japan access to Shinkansen service. JNR appears to be opposed to a wide ex- tension of the Shinkansen network on economic grounds. Passenger demand appears to be too small, even with future projections, to warrant the economic investment required for construction and operation of a nation-wide system. The proposed expansion is being argued, not strictly on economic terms, but on the broader social advantages such a system would bring to the residents of Japan. A nation-wide Shinkansen network is seen as contributing to the economic development of all regions of Japan, and would also serve as a uniting factor for residents in the outlying regions.

Even though a nation-wide network would not be operationally profit- able, it may well be socially profitable for Japan in the long run-- certaintly a consideration that warrants further investigation.

5.3.7 Frequency o f S e r v i c e

Source: [ 5 7 1

Figure 5 . 1 0 EXPENSES FOR FIXED INSTALLATIONS DEPENDING ON OPTIMAL SPEED

benefits which can arise from a high-speed transportation system:

its influence on industrial development, new urban growth centers, opening up new market areas, easier access to the centers of govern- ment, a viable alternative to travel with private automobiles (sav- ings of energy and lives).

Even the question of unprofitable lines may be resolved by changes in settlement and industrial patterns spurred by the pre- sence of a high-speed system. Unprofitability may have only a relatively short time span compared to the life of the system.

Business journeys are characterized by a 3 to 10 hour interval from arrival to return. This demand results in rush hours. Rail- ways are not economical for short distances. In this case, be- cause the investment needed to satisfy the rush hours, which is attributed directly to the railway enterprise, consists, not only of the expenses for the rolling stock, but also for line, signall- ing, and operation, which are high because of strict safety and rail conditions. However, because of the short distance, opera- tional costs are low. Therefore, the fares had to exceed some thresholds or, frequently, some limits of social considerations if the railways tried to have cost-covering fares and earn the expenses for the rush hours predicted in the short interval of operation. If all costs were counted, as is done in the case of railways, and if the safety conditions and other obligations re- main consistent, every transportation means would be a loss for

the company or the individual at the present fare structure, as

bm

-

average acceleration bB

-

^braking

-, limit in existing net-

, / >

work caveraqei

@average duration 3f

100 stops (=in)

@addition to travel

I

I ' I time in %

i [i

^{1 !}

10 10' 60 I I 801 I00

' I I

I 1 I x distance between

I I

I I 1 1 I stations (km)

express train LO. I

1

, ^{I ; I}

I

travelling time for 1972

intercity train 69 8 I average distance for

1972 at 38

average distance m ruture at DB

Source: 1351

F i g u r e 5.11 L L Y I T S OF T R A V E L L I N G S P E W D E P E N D I N G O N A V E R A G E D I S T A N C E OF S T A T I O N S A N D D U R A T I O N OF S T O P S

in the case of pure commuter transport. The only exceptions in- volve the use of animals, which can also be used for meat or milk products, or going on foot. The ratio of operational costs to

In the case of the New Tokaido Line, there is not only the structure of settlements, the sources and sinks of demand, and

S o u r c e : 7 1

F i g u r e 5 . 1 3 EXPENSES FOR ENERGY FOR AN E L E C T R I C MULTIPLE-UNIT TRAIN

S o u r c e : 7 1

F i g u r e 5 . 1 4 ZX?E?TSES '01 EZrr'SGY FOR A LOCOMOTIVE-HAULED

E L E C T R I C TRAIN

S o u r c e : [ 2 7 1

F i g u r e 5 . 1 5 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT RAIL-GUIDED VEHICLES

n

-

^s1 ^''a

f o r 6 0 0 )an Boeing 7 2 7 f o r

6 0 0 !a distance

-

Vmax-90Oh/h

4 ~ m w = 9 2 5 W h

I I

-

₁₅₈ s e a t s

18

-

$4

-

i

-

^{bus Vmax=}

o !

o n ¹⁰ n ~ r n

Loading f a c t o r ( Z )

Figure 5.16 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF DIFFERENT TRANSPORTATION MEANS DEPENDING ON LOAD FACTOR

Of c o u r s e , due t o t h e u n c e r t a i n t y o f &ernand p r e d i c t i o n s beyond 1 0 y e a r s , c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n a l y s i s i s p r o b l e m a t i c a l f o r l o n g - r a n g e p l a n n i n g .

C l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h p r o f i t i s t h e s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n o f l i f e - t i m e d e v i c e s . Long l i f e t i m e r e d u c e s m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s and r e n e w a l . The r e t u r n o f c a s h c a n b e l o n g e r . But l o n g l i f e t i m e c a u s e s h i g h e r c o s t s f o r i n v e s t m e n t a n d r e d u c e s f l e x i b i l i t y t o c h a n g e s o f demand o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , whlch c a n r e s u l t i n l o s s

( F i g u r e 5 . 1 7 ) .

P r o f i t a b i l i t y was c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e o v e r a l l s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h and t h e r e f o r e h a s l e d t o t h e p r o p e r u s e o f c o m p u t e r s . The r e s u l t s a r e , f o r example, t h a t t h e r u n n i n g t i m e c a n be c a l c u l a t e d f o r a 3 , 5 0 0 km d i s t a n c e i n o n e h o u r i n s t e a d o f 100 km i n

a

h o u r s and t h e t i m e t a b l e c a n b e p r e p a r e d i n a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e t i m a r e q u i r e d by t h e former method [ U U ] .

A t p r e s e n t JNR r e c o g n i z e s t h a t , n o t o n l y p r o d u c t i v i t y , b u t a l s o r e l i a b i l i t y a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e e c o n o m i c a l o p e r a t i o n o f r a i l w a y s i n an ooen m a r k e t .

New Tokaido

L;ne t--r)

p r e s e n t r a i l - way l r n e s i n many c o u n t r i e s Lif ecune

(a1

F i g u r e 5 . 1 7 LIFETIYE, PROFIT .AND COST RELATIONS

5.3.9 Computerization and Automation

As early as 1965 about 50 computers were in use at J N R in- cluding, for example, IBM 360/40, UNIVAC 490, etc. [83].

Advanced methods optimization in railways were used very early, including dynamic programming [491, and the maximum prin- ciple of Pontryagin [421. A great importance was given to the practicability of algorithms. In time-table calculation, the com- puter is used for logical decisions and control, the human makes the heuristic decisions and can use his experience, which is im- portant in such complex systems with long system life time as railways. From the very beginning, man-machine interface was considered (e.g., COMTRAC [39,44,74,84,91,99]).

From calculation of train operation [43,48,46,57,79,96,100]

to train table preparation [25,44,45,91,93,981, etc., in all pos- sible fields of application, computers have been utilized. Al- though railways are complex, large systems, an attempt to trans- fer the pattern of computerizing relatively simple systems such a s factories to railways has not been made. As the information system at J N R was designed, it was decided to use functionally dedicated systems [44] (see Figure 5.18). From the seat reser- vation systems MARS, COMTRAC, KICS, to SMIS (see Table 5.6, which shows the costs and some results gained by these systems) all sys- tems are designed according to this philosophy.

Automation is used for positioning the stop of cars [15,531, for train control (ACT) in some speed ranges [6 1,58,59,81,87,1021 , which is now extended by using on board mini-computers [42,60,65], to central traffic control (CTC) [ 3 , 4 0 , 3 9 , 4 7 , 7 4 , 7 6 , 8 2 , 8 4 , 9 9 , 1 0 2 ,

1031. Of course this has caused a change of technology for signall- ing and data transmission in railways [3,66,83,1041.

5.3.10 Maintenance

The main characteristics of the progress at J N R are the ex- tensive use of new methods and technologies in the field of main- tenance. For example:

P E X O N N E L ADMINISTRATION

Im Dokument The Shinkansen Program: Transportation, Railway, Environmental, Regional, and National Issues (Seite 179-200)