AND OCEANS TRANSITION
The sustainable Fisheries and Oceans transition
The sustainable Fisheries and Oceans transition 157 and climate change.21 Establish marine protected
areas and enhance management effectiveness of existing as well as new marine protected areas, ensuring adequate human capacity and budget, and clear boundaries.22 Area-based fishery management measures may complement marine protected areas.
These may include no-take areas, prohibition of specific gears in certain areas, and, most commonly, regulation of fishing effort or catch by area. Such areas, which reduce negative impacts on biodi-versity with only minimally-reduced profits, may arguably be considered as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs).23
reduce pollution, addressing land and sea-based sources of excess nutrients and plastic waste.24 control invAsive species spreAd via marine pathways, including through ballast water, hull fouling and use of species in aquaculture.
Progress towards the transition
There has been substantial expansion of marine protected areas during the last decade (see Aichi Biodiversity Target 11) and a number of countries, such as Canada, have designated other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) in the marine realm.25 There has also been progress in the development of marine spatial planning.
For example, the island of Barbuda, Belgium and the Seychelles have developed or are developing marine spatial plans for the entire areas under their
jurisdiction.26 Ecologically and biologically signif-icant marine areas (EBSAs), described under the Convention, have been recognized through the national plans of Angola and Namibia.27
Despite the overall negative trends globally, there are signs of the rebuilding of previous-ly-depleted stocks in marine fisheries that have improved fisheries management,28 addressed illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing,29 or introduced reforms of fisheries policy (see Aichi Biodiversity Target 6, especially Figure 6.3).30 For example, in Indonesia, The Gambia and Liberia, bold action has been taken to crack down on illegal fishing by fleets from distant countries, resulting in a reduction of fishing pressure with benefits for local fishing liveli-hoods (Box 6.1).31 More generally, most Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) appear to be respected, with unauthorized foreign fishing more than 80%
lower in areas just inside EEZs compared to areas just outside them.32 China has recently introduced measures to improve transparency, sustainability and compliance with international norms in the operation of its large distant-water fleet.33 The development of vessel monitoring systems and lists of offending vessels has improved the tracking of fishing operations. A number of international agree-ments on fisheries and the ocean have recently come into force, including the Port State Measures Agreement to address illegal, unreported and unreg-ulated fishing,34 and the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments, aimed at reducing the risk
Shane Myers Photography / Shutterstock
from spread of invasive alien species through shipping.35 Regulations on aquaculture and on deep sea mining are also under development.
Some linkages with other transitions Agriculture: depends on reduced pollution from agricultural run-off food: contributes to nutrition for healthy and sustainable diets through ensuring long-term supplies of fish from well-functioning marine ecosystems
freshwAter: depends on transport of nutrients and sediments, reduced pollution from rivers and conservation
of migratory fish in their freshwater life stages;
contributes to conservation of fish that spawn in freshwater environments
climAte Action: depends on sustainable climate change mitigation to reduce ocean acidification and impacts of warmer sea temperatures; contributes to climate change mitigation through sequestration of ‘blue carbon’, as well as resilience of both marine ecosystems and livelihoods to climate change impacts
one heAlth: contributes to human health through sustaining fish-based protein and oils in diets, and to a One Health approach through sustainable mariculture production
Figure 22.4. Timing of projected recovery of marine fishery stocks under alternative scenarios.
0 20 40 60 80 100
BAU (all stocks) BAU (conservation concern)
RBFM
FMSY
Profit/year ($ Billion)
-10 yyy (( )) 80
% Stocks above 0.8 B/BMSY
Year Total harvest (MMT)
88 49
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
The projections are shown for two scenarios for fisheries reforms (RBFM: full reform policy based on rights-based fishery measures aimed at achieving maximum economic yield, and FMSY: limited reform policy aimed at achieving maximum sustainable yield) compared to ‘business as usual’ (BAU) under two assumptions (BAU (all stocks: assuming that all stocks are subject to increased fishing pressure, and BAU(conservation concern: assuming that overexploited and fully exploited stocks are subject to increased fishing pressure.) The proportion of stocks above a threshold biomass level is indicated on the y axis. The size of the circles is proportional to the total harvest (Note the ‘lean years’ during the first years of the RBFM scenario). The profitability is shown in shades of colour from unprofitable (red) to profitable (blue). (Figure reproduced from Christopher Costello et al. (2016) PNAS 113, 5125-5129).36
The sustainable Fisheries and Oceans transition 159
CHOKCHAI POOMICHAIYA / Shutterstock
Summary of the transition
Redesigning agricultural systems through agroecological and other innovative approaches to enhance productivity while minimizing negative impacts on biodiversity. This transition recognizes the role of biodiversity, including pollinators, pest and disease control organisms, soil biodiversity and genetic diversity, as well as diversity in the landscape, for productive and resilient agriculture that makes efficient use of land, water and other resources.
Rationale and benefits
Currently, land-use change from the expansion of agriculture is the largest driver of biodiversity loss.1 Many agricultural practices, such as tillage, fertilizer use and pesticide use as well as the overuse
of antibiotics in livestock also tend to reduce biodiversity.2
On the other hand, enhanced biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems would contribute both to the sustainability and to productivity of agriculture.3 For example, food production is stabilized by diversity among4 and within5 crops.
The diversity and abundance of pollinators is associated with improved yields and nutritional quality of crops dependent on animal pollination.6 Biodiversity among crops and livestock, as well as among arthropods and other species in agricul-tural ecosystems including soil biodiversity, reduces the incidence of pests and diseases.7 Systems that integrate multiple crops, livestock, fish and trees on farms, can further promote productivity and sustainability through synergistic interactions.8
Increasing the productivity and sustainability of agriculture is an essential element of reducing and reversing biodiversity decline (see Pathways).9
‘Sustainable intensification’ comprises a range of methods to achieve these objectives,10 by improving the efficiency of use of land and inputs of water, fertilizers and pesticides, including though genetic improvements to crops and livestock, substituting external inputs, and designing or redesigning systems based on agroecological principles.11 A
range of alternative terms are in use, and the latter approaches are sometimes termed ecological intensification or agroecology.12 Besides techno-logical improvements,13 these approaches may also include changes in regulatory systems, incentives and markets, and in the roles and relationships of farmers, consumers, businesses, civil society and government.14 To ensure that food systems are fully sustainable, these approaches need to be accom-panied by changes in demand (see Food Systems transition).15
Increasing the productivity and sustainability of agriculture can reduce pressure on forests and other biodiverse ecosystems and, with the appro-priate policy measures in place, allow space for increased conservation and restoration activ-ities (see Land and Forests transition).16 It can also improve the resilience of agricultural systems, locally and globally, and contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation (see Climate Action transition).17 More sustainable agriculture can also provide habitats for biodiversity,18 improve connectivity to prevent isolation of species, and support the health and well-being of people through a cleaner, more diverse and resilient rural environment (see One Health transition).19 Key components of the transition20 promote integrAted pest And diseAse mAnAgement. This entails management of crop and integrated agroecosystems including, as appro-priate, biological control agents (introduction