Spirit possession

There are two types of spirit possessions in Ethiopia: possession by evil spirits, and possessions by guardian spirits. Evil spirits are generally known by the name sexaana, shayxaana, or jinnii. It is difficult, if not impossible, to control and manage evil spirits.

Hence, it is strongly recommended that they should be exorcized as they mostly result in

254 Alemitu B., 22 February in Abbomsa.

255 Shiferaw J., 23 February 2011 in Nazareth.

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different kinds of mental and physical sicknesses (Lewis 1984: 420-421). At Faraqqasaa a guardian zar spirit is known as wuqaabii and it protects an individual and a community (Lewis 1984: 421). Individuals possessed by wuqaabii help in the healing process of those possessed by various evil spirits such as budaa (evil eye).²⁵⁶

Zar: spirit possession cult

An important prerequisite for belief in spirit possession is belief in the existence of spirits (Klass 2003: 67). Al-Adawi et al., (2001: 47) and Bourguignon (1995: 71) state that belief in sprit possession is a worldwide phenomenon. Belief in spirits and their potential to attack and possess human beings has its origin in ancient times and its influence and significance has continued to spread to the modern period (Lewis 1984: 419). However, the oldest scroll referring to the term zar goes as back as to the sixteenth century (Natvig 1987:

677). The term zar refers to possession by a spirit as well as the ritual of exorcising a possessing spirit from the possessed individual or harmonizing it with the possessed. Hence, it is associated with the entire experience of an individual attacked by spirits (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 48, Natvig 1987: 670, Boddy 1989: 131, El Guindy and Schmais 1994: 107). Zar refers to a type of trance dance performed with the aim of curing a person possessed by a spirit.

Although it is generally stated that rhythm and rituals are distinctive features of a zar dance (El Guindy and Schmais 1994: 107) there is no consensus regarding the origin of the term zar itself. According to one narration the term has its root in Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia, while another story states that the term is a corruption of zahr, an Arabic word meaning “he visited” (Boddy 1989: 132, Al-Adawi et al., 2001. 48, El Guindy and Schmais 1994: 107).

Story of the origin of zar

There is no consensus regarding the issue of the origin of belief in the zar spirit. Al-Adawi et al (2001: 48- 49) state that there are three possible places of origin for belief in zar.

The first narrative states that belief in zar started in Ethiopia and over time was adopted by many Middle Eastern and North African communities. This belief in possession by zar is said to have originated from the name of an ancient pagan god in Abyssinian myths. The second view states that the belief first emerged in Iran, while according to the third view, it originated in the Sudan (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49). It is, however, widely believed that belief in a zar spirit was first witnessed in Ethiopia. According to Sengers (2003:89) zar was related to the

256 Alemitu B., 22 February 2011 in Abbomsa, Shito N., 22 February in Abbmosa.

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cult of a traditional god, who was considered to be a demon after the population converted to Christianity.

El Guindy et al., (1994: 107) also agree to the notion that belief in zar first originated in Ethiopia and then spread to countries like Egypt, the Sudan, Iran, the Middle East, and Nigeria. Natvig (1987: 669) further elaborates that belief in zar spread into Djibouti and Eritrea. The most popular Abyssinian legend regarding the origin of belief in a zar spirit goes back to the story of the Garden of Eden. It is believed that Eve had 30 children. One day God came to visit Eve and demanded to see her children. Eve did not know what God’s real motives were and she was terrified that God might try to take her children away. As a result, she decided to hide fifteen of the better looking and smarter children. However, God already knew what she had done, so he decided to convert the hidden children into invisible creatures (spirits) with supernatural powers who could only roam the world at night (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 53, El Guindy and Schmais 1994: 109). Although they are immortal and endowed with supernatural powers, they are generally believed to be jealous creatures (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 53; Gemechu J. Geda 2009: 83).

At Faraqqasaa, zar refers to: 1. the possessing spirit; and 2. the entire ceremony that is used to harmonize the spirit and the possessed in the case of possession by a good (guardian) spirit or the exorcising of an evil spirit from someone possessed in this way. Harmonizing good spirits with the possessed is a group action, while exorcising evil spirits is largely done on an individual basis. The procedure leading to the above actions, however, starts with the beating of a drum around 7:30 in the evening. The sound of the drum is believed to enable possession by spirits. This is done intentionally because the first step in healing the possessed is to identify the type of possessing spirit/spirits. Simultaneously, in the sagannat house, attendants of the center start to pour perfumes from bottles into a big container. The perfume is used as a feast for the possessing spirits and as a means of differentiating between evil and guardian spirits. On hearing the sound of the drum, pilgrims possessed by various types of spirits run to the compound. All of them start shouting and screaming on the way to the compound and they continue doing this on arrival as well. This behavior is said to be the consequence of the sound of the drum, which activates the possessing spirit(s). Identifying and harmonizing or exorcising possessing spirits is the task of the spiritual leader. He does not, however, directly communicate with the possessed. He only gives orders by whispering instructions to one of his ritual aides (aggaafaarii) who in turn gives orders to the spirits possessing an individual.

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The aggaafaarii passes on instructions as given by the spiritual leader. While possessed pilgrims are performing trance dances, orders are given for evil spirits, such as budaa (evil eye) and jinni, to leave the congregation. Evil spirits are warned of grave consequences if they fail to do so. Then some of the aides and servants at the center approach the pilgrims performing zar dances with the bucket containing the perfume mixture. The spiritual leader then orders the possessing spirits to “behold and sit silently”. Most participants follow these instructions; only a few pilgrims continue scream further from the influence of the possessing spirits. Once the pilgrims sit silently, the aides then walk through the seated pilgrims using a flywhisk to sprinkle them with the perfume. It is believed that the perfume serves as a kind of feast (offering) to the possessing spirit. Some pilgrims even ask the aides to sprinkle them more. Although the possessed pilgrims are asking for this, worshippers state that it is the unsatisfied possessing spirits that ask for more using the possessed as a medium.²⁵⁷

When sprinkled with perfume, some pilgrims start to scream and shout louder. These are people possessed with evil spirits such as budaa (evil eye) and jinni. Worshippers believe that evil spirits do not like good smells and they are also not resistant to them. Many informants have told me that most pilgrims believe that the perfume burns these evil spirits, makes them scream and defeats them. The screaming is attributed to a spirit that uses the body of the possessed as a medium. Pilgrims possessed with evil spirits are then identified and taken away by the aggaafaarii. The remaining pilgrims that enjoy the smell of the perfume are possessed by a guardian zar and they are ordered by the spiritual leader to continue performing the trance dance without hurting each other. This permits pilgrims possessed with guardian spirits to continue the zar dance, which involves revolving their heads violently and shaking their torsos. The amazing thing is that, even if there are many people at the event, there are no incidents of bumping into each other during the zar dance.²⁵⁸

After a while, the spiritual leader gives instructions to the possessing spirits to be completely silent. He informs the spirits that they will receive offerings, which usually entails sacrifices once every year. The leader also commands the spirits not to attack the person but to help him/her until the next pilgrimage period. Blessings and prayers are made for peaceful pilgrimages and gatherings for the ensuing pilgrimage period. Prayers are also made for the prevalence of everlasting peace in the country and the family of all those who are present at the center. The possessed are also instructed to continue offering their respective possessing

257 Hussien F., 18 February 2011 at Faraqqasaa.

258 Hussien F., 18 February 2011 at Faraqqasaa.

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spirit what they had offered it prior to this pilgrimage. Then the spirits are told to mount their

“horses”²⁵⁹ and “play” in their respective places. With this instruction, the possessed leave the compound and disperse into their camps (Gemechu J. Geda 2009: 84-85).

Possession by spirit/s

There are different factors that lead to attacks or possessions by a spirit. It is believed that every individual is susceptible to possession by a spirit/spirits, the only difference being the degree of exposure to possession (Messing 1958: 1121, El Guindy and Schmais 1994:

110). Some of the most important factors that facilitate attacks by spirits are discussed as follows:

Natural conditions

Finding oneself amidst some natural geographical locations, such as bushes, increases the risk of possession by spirits. It is believed that spirits live in bushes, ride wild animals, milk them, and protect them from hunters (Messing 1958: 1121). Venturing to such places alone, especially at midday or midnight, exposes an individual to attacks by spirits that regard this action as an incursion in their territory.²⁶⁰

Inheritance

It is widely believed that a zar spirit can be hereditary (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49).

Some individuals deliberately encourage possession by a spirit by declaring their commitment to the possessing spirit. This only happens if they find out they are possessed by a guardian spirit (Wuqaabii) (Messing 1958: 1121, El Guindy and Schmais 1994: 110). Only female members of a family can inherit the possessing spirits of their parents (El Guindy and Schmais 1994: 111). Although the notion of the hereditary nature of spirit possession is accepted at Faraqqasaa, a spirit can possess any member of the family without limiting itself to females. For instance, after the death of Momina, her male descendants inherited her spirit.²⁶¹

The spirit’s own choice

Zar spirits can also independently decide which individuals to possess (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49). Often spirits tend to choose individuals with good character and beauty (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49, Messing 1959: 1121). Sometimes spirits can attack individuals with

259 Many informants have told me that individuals possessed by a spirit are considered as horses to a possessing spirit.

260 Mengistu W., 21 February 2011 in Abbomsa, Alemitu B., 22 February 2011 in Abbomsa, Gemechu J. Geda (2009: 86).

261 Shieferaw J., 23 February 2011 in Nazareth; Gemechu J. Geda (2009:87).

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weaker characters (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49). Possession can also happen accidentally. Zar spirits can also possess curious observers of the rituals that are intended to appease and/or exorcise zar, especially if an onlooker tries to mock the rituals or refute the belief of possession by a zar (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49). Zar also possesses individuals who tease people possessed by spirits and all the rituals intended to appease or exorcise spirits in the possessed. Making fun of zar and the rituals related to spirit appeasement or exorcism may result in possession or other futile consequences, such as sicknesses.²⁶²

Possession by zar may also result in severe consequences, such as death to individuals resisting possession. Once possessed, the individual must take part in a number of rituals intended to harmonize the spirit and the possessed or to exorcise the spirit (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49). At Faraqqasaa, individuals who have been attacked by a spirit but have resisted possession have to be tied up in order to restrain them from hurling themselves on the ground or against other physical objects such as walls and trees and from jumping into rivers.²⁶³ Lewis (1984: 419) states that spirit possession is viewed as social protest by women and men of low social statuses. However, I have found that the social status of an individual does not dictate spirit possession in Ethiopia nor its significance. It is also a common practice among many ethnic groups in Ethiopia. The diverse ethnic composition of pilgrims at Faraqqasaa that are possessed by spirits is a good example of the prevalence of belief in spirit possession among many ethnic groups.

In terms of gender, Al-Adawi (2001: 54) states that women’s low status in society makes them easy targets of spirit possession, whereas the possessing spirits are mostly believed to be male. Lewis (1984: 419) relates spirit possession to a number of psychological and social deprivations and inferiority. He stipulates that these groups of people use spirit possession to advance their social and economic positions in the society. According to Al-Adawi et al., (2001: 54) men tend to deny the presence of a zar spirit. This led them to deduce that men exploit the zar experience to exercise their authority over women without facing a meaningful challenge. However, none of these arguments are acceptable at Faraqqasaa, where zar have a tendency of attacking people regardless of their gender, religious, social, and economic backgrounds (Gemechu J. Geda 2009: 88).

Possession symptoms

Some of the symptoms of possession by a zar spirit include psychological and physical problems such as somnolence, lightheadedness, chronic headache, loss of appetite,

262 Jilo H., 20 February 2011 in Abbomsa.

263 Kebede A., 18 February 2011 at Faraqqasaa.

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agitation, abrupt shouting, use of indecent terms, and singing and crying simultaneously (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 50). Lambek (1996: 239) states possession may result in trauma, temporary detachment, physical pain, unpredictability, and at times self-infliction of pain.

Messing (1958:1120) adds susceptibility to mishaps, infertility, and intense seizures, abrupt shouting and screaming as possible symptoms of possession by a spirit. Most of these possessions symptoms are easily observable at Faraqqasaa. The actions and behavior of the possessed are mainly attributed to the possessing spirit that communicates via the possessed.²⁶⁴ Every word uttered by the possessed is considered to be the wish of the possessing spirit (Klass 2003: 37, Al-Adawi et al. 2001: 50). There are also occasions when a possessed individual talks in two or more differing tones. Under this circumstance it is believed that the individual is simultaneously possessed by two or more spirits (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 50).

Spirit possession healing methods

Families and relatives of a possessed individual usually start to suspect possession by a spirit when all treatments fail to heal a patient and families and relatives recommend visiting a professional healer. The possessed is then taken to the ritual house of a healer who interviews the possessed and thus indirectly interviews the possessing spirit. Then the possessed takes part in a number of rituals supervised by the ritual expert in an attempt to harmonize or exorcise the possessing spirit. The first action of the healer is to encourage or coerce the unknown spirit to possess the afflicted. This helps the healer to identify the type and nature of zar that has attacked an individual.²⁶⁵ The healer uses his knowledge of the zar language to plead or threaten the possessing spirit and ultimately harmonize or expel it.

There is a popular belief that a zar cannot be exorcized. The possessed individual promises to appease the spirit by fulfilling its demands. In return, the spirit grants temporary relief to the possessed. However, the zar spirit may possess the individual anytime during possession rituals to receive its annual material gifts from the possessed, who the spirit regards as his horse. Lewis (1984: 421) states that a zar is neither completely evil nor good.

The above explanation is corroborated by information from my interviewees. Rather, the possessed has to take part in various annual ceremonies as well as other rituals led by ritual experts to appease the spirit and harmonize it with the possessed. Ritual experts themselves have suffered from various sicknesses caused by spirit possession, but they have managed to control the spirits and they use their skills to heal others suffering from possession. In

264 Mohammad T., 16 February 2011 at Faraqqasaa.

265 Mengistu W., 21 February 2011 in Abbomsa.

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addition, the expertise to heal individuals who have been attacked by spirits can be inherited (Gemechu J. Geda 2009: 91).

At Faraqqasaa the ability to heal those attacked by spirits is inherited. According to El Guindy and Schmais (1994: 111) women inherit the ability to harmonize or exorcise zar and male ritual experts state that the spirits themselves have chosen them to heal the sick. As practiced at Faraqqasaa, the ability to heal possession is inherited without gender preference, but since the death of Momina, all ritual experts endowed with the power to heal are men.

At Faraqqasaa and in Ethiopia in general, the possessed and the possession healer are both known as bale-zar (someone with a zar). The spirit possessing the healer is believed to be much stronger than any other spirit possessing ordinary people. As a result, the healer employs his powerful spirit to exorcise or harmonize the lesser sprits.²⁶⁶ In addition to the powerful spirits they have domesticated, healers are believed to possess other powers.

Messing (1959: 1122) states that healers are endowed with such unique gifts as a special way of staring at patients. They are also believed to be masters of certain linguistic abilities, such as the ability to communicate with spirits. For instance, Momina was said to have had the most powerful of all spirits that she controlled and used to heal the possessed. After her death, the spirit possessed her subsequent descendants and ritual leaders. Throughout its history, the leaders of the Faraqqasaa pilgrimage center are credited with powerful staring and verbal abilities. Every time they interview individuals attacked by spirits, the leaders stare unswervingly into the eyes of the possessed to communicate with the spirits, at times pleading and, when necessary, threatening the spirits.²⁶⁷

Interviewing the possessed, hence the possessing spirit, is the first action on the way to healing. This enables the ritual leader to identify the type of possessing spirit that is causing the sickness. By looking at the nature (speed and difficulty) of the trance dance performed by the possessed, healers can also determine the type of the possessing spirit (Messing 1959:

1120). Once the type of the spirit is known through the trance dance and the spirit starts to communicate with the healer via the possessed, it becomes clear why the spirit attacked an individual. Then the healer tries to harmonize/exorcise it by making various promises or threats (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 49- 51). It is impossible to exorcise a zar spirit permanently.

The possessed must attend rituals annually and s/he should fulfill what s/he promised the spirit. If s/he fails to do so s/he has an increased risk of becoming sick again before the annual period of pilgrimage (Al-Adawi et al., 2001: 52). At Faraqqasaa the possessed take part in

266 Wondimu K., 21 February in Abbomsa.

267 Shiferaw J., 23 February 2011 in Nazareth.

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group healing rituals. The healer appeases the spirit and commands it not to attack its human

“horse” until the next pilgrimage.²⁶⁸

268 Wondimu K., 21 February 2011 in Abbomsa.

Im Dokument Pilgrimages and syncretism: Religious Transformation Among the Arsi Oromo of Ethiopia (Seite 182-191)