Nominal categegories
7.1 Spatial adverbs
7.1.1 Spatial adverbs derived from demonstrative pronouns
Several series of spatial adverbs can productively be derived from demonstrative pro-nouns. The major derivation pattern is the suffixation of-tːuto the stem of the pronouns (Table 7.1). The full list of the respective base pronouns is given in §4.2. The meanings of the spatial adverbs are plainly based on the meaning of the base pronouns, showing that their semantics is organized along the meaning components of demonstrative pronouns (§4.2.1, §4.2.2):
• proximity to deictic center (i.e. speech act participants)
• elevation in relation to deictic center
• visibility, aformentionedness, familiarity, etc.
As for proximity, there is a three way distinction (see the adverbs in the first three lines of Table 7.1). Elevation distinguishes three meanings, of which ‘above’ and ‘below’ are expressed by dedicated stems (see the last three lines in Table 7.1) whereas all remaining adverbs are used when the meaning ‘level’ is intended. The third meaning component is expressed via the distinction of the word-initial syllable (the three columnsi(C)-vs. he(C)-vs.hi(C)-in Table 7.1). The adverbs of the typehe(C)tːugiven in the second column of the table are predominantly used when referring to the immediate geographical surround-ings of the speaker (and addressee), when the conversation is about spatial reference points that have been mentioned before, are assumed to be known by the participants or are part of the personal sphere of the speaker (1), (2). In contrast, thei(C)tːuadverbs in the first column are commonly used when new spatial reference points are introduced or when talking about reference points whose location is unknown or irrelevant (3), (4).
The adverbs of thehi(C)tːutype given in the third column occur only seldom in my cor-pus so that I am not able to make any generalizations about their meaning. Note also that
there are two series of adverbs with the identical meaning, being formally differentiated only by the stem consonant (x vs. k’). The adverbs containingxare far more frequently used than the adverbs withk’, which might even represent code switching to another Dargwa dialect.
Table 7.1: Spatial adverbs derived from demonstrative pronouns
i(C)tːu he(C)tːu hi(C)tːu translation
iš-tːu heš-tːu hiš-tːu ‘here, close to the speaker’
il-tːu hel-tːu hil-tːu ‘there, away from the speaker and/or close to the hearer’
i-tːu he-tːu hi-tːu ‘there, further away, unspecific distance’
ik’-tːu hek’-tːu hik’-tːu ‘here/there above the deictic center’
ix-tːu hex-tːu hix-tːu ‘here/there above the deictic center’
iχ-tːu heχ-tːu hiχ-tːu ‘here/there below the deictic center’
(1) [talking about a gasoline station]
ag-ur-re
‘I went away from there carrying a bucket of fuel.’
(2) [referring to a dog that is visible to the participants of the conversation]
heχ-tːu-b
‘The dog was there.’
(3) itːu=ra
‘There, here (her husband) sends her everywhere.’
(4) [referring to people depicted on cards]
deč
‘There is nobody there without a drink in the hands.’
A second series of spatial adverbs denoting the source is derived by means of the suffix -ka(5) (Table 7.2). This suffix is probably a cognate of the second part of the complex ablative suffix-r-ka(§3.4). These adverbs can also have a temporal interpretation ‘from time X on, after time X’ in addition to the spatial meaning (6). As can be seen in the table, the adverbs in the first two lines have the same meaning because the base pronouns are synonyms.
Table 7.2: Spatial adverbs denoting the source
base meaning heC-ka iC-ka hiC-ka translation
close to the speaker hež-ka iž-ka hiž-ka ‘from here’
close to the speaker hej-ka ij-ka hij-ka ‘from here’
there, away from the speaker and/ hel-ka il-ka hil-ka ‘from there’
or close to the hearer
further away, unspecific distance het-ka it-ka hit-ka ‘from there’
above the deictic center hek-ka ik-ka hik-ka ‘from above’
below the deictic center heχ-ka iχ-ka hiχ-ka ‘from below’
(5) kat=q’ar down=mod
ka-r-ilsː-a-di
down-f-lay.ipfv-hab.pst-1
ij-ka=ra this-abl=add
kːancːupːe ladder
hej-ka=ra this-abl=add kːancːupːe
ladder
iχ-ka=ra
dem.down-abl=add
‘As for lying, I lay, but (there are) stairs from here, stairs from here, and also from there.’ (The speaker complains that staying in the hospital is difficult for her because in order to go to the toilet she has to take the stairs)
(6) hej-ka this-abl
ʡaˁħaˁd=ra Ahad=add
suk meet
∅-ič-ib
m-occur.pfv-pret ca-w cop-m
qːačaʁ-la bandit-gen
qal-sa-w house-ante-m di-la
1sg-gen
durħuˁ=ra boy=add
‘After this Ahad also met my son in front of the house of Kachar (lit. ‘bandit’)).’
(Kachar is the nickname of a man)
Both series of adverbs can be inflected for the directional cases in the same way as nominals are inflected, but since the adverbs denoting source already express movement, they cannot take the essive case (Table 7.3). The ablative of the pronouns in this table can also express temporal meaning, for instanceheltːu-rka(there-abl) ‘then’.
Table 7.3: Inflectional paradigms of two spatial adverbs
‘here’ ‘from here’
essive heštːu-b —
lative heštːu helka
ablative heštːu-r(ka) helka-r(ka) directional heštːu-b-a helka-b-a
A third series of spatial adverbs has the meaning ‘from X to X’. It is formed by means of the complex suffix-k-itːu-b-a(7). The suffix is a combination of the ablative-ka (short-ened to-k), the locational suffix-tːuand the directional marker-gm-a(§3.4.2.8). The last
suffix is, in principle, optional, although there are no examples without it in my cor-pus. According to Sanzhi speakers, the resulting complex adverbs are actually a short variant of combining the adverbs in Table 7.2 with the adverbs in Table 7.1, for example hetka+hetːuba>hetkitːuba. However, the suffix as a whole can also be added to other nominal bases such as personal pronouns, common nouns or personal names if they are inflected for the loc-ablative case first, such asnušːa-le-r-kitːu-b-a (1pl-loc-abl-advz-n-dir) ‘from us further away’,uškul-le-r-kitːu-b-a(school-loc-abl-advz-n-dir) ‘from the school further away’. The series is also available from the other two pronominal stemsiC andhiC, but in my corpus there are only examples of the adverbs from theheC-pronouns given in (7–8), (9), (14).
(7) heC-kitːu-gm-a(directional)
a. hež-kitːu-b-a ‘from here (= place of speaker) to there’
b. hej-kitːu-b-a ‘from here (= place of speaker) to there’
c. hel-kitːu-b-a ‘from there (= place of the addressee) to there’
d. het-kitːu-b-a ‘from there (= unspecific place) to there’
e. hek-kitːu-b-a ‘from above to there’
f. heχ-kitːu-b-a ‘from down to there’
(8) heC-kitːu-rka(ablative)
a. hež-kitːu-rka ‘from here to there, past, by’
b. hej-kitːu-rka ‘from here to there, past, by’
c. hel-kitːu-rka ‘from there to there, past, by’
d. het-kitːu-rka ‘from there to there, past, by’
e. hek-kitːu-rka ‘from above to there, past, by’
f. heχ-kitːu-rka ‘from down to there, past, by’
(9) nišːa-la 1pl-gen
durħ-ne boy-pl
hejkitːu-b-a
from.here.to.there-hpl-dir
Nižnekamsk-le Nizhnekamensk-loc b-uq’-aˁn-ne,
hpl-go-ptcp-prs.3
…
‘if our sons go from here to there to Nizhnekamensk, …’
Finally, there is a spatial adverbitille‘further, to the side, sideways’ that seems to be the pronounitinflected for the locational suffix-le(10).
(10) nišːa-la 1pl-gen
šːi-la village-gen
itille-b further-n
musːa place
te-b exist-n
‘At that side of the village there is a place.’
7.1.2 Spatial adverbs related to postpositions
All spatial postpositions discussed in §8.1 can also be used adverbially without a depen-dent noun phrase (11). Some of them have not only spatial, but also temporal semantics.
They can inflect for all spatial cases expressing direction/movement (essive, lative, abla-tive, directional). A few examples are provided in (12), (13).
(11) hitːi‘after, behind’ sar‘in front, before, in earlier times’
hila‘behind, after’ sala‘in front, before, forward’
gu‘down, low, before’ xːar(i)‘to the bottom, down(wards)’
či‘up, above’ qari‘at/on the top’
b-i‘inside’ urkːa‘within, in the middle’
tːura‘outside’ šːule‘at side, to the side, next to, sidelong’
(12) “u
‘“Now,” the fox says to the wolf, “you sit down in front, and I behind!”’
(13) ank’luʁi-la
‘The village of Anklukh is pretty high up.’
There are four spatial adverbs that have been derived from spatial postpositions by means of suffixing-tːito the root:gu-tːi‘along downside, at the lower side’ (<gu‘down, under’),či-tːi‘along upside, at the upper side’ (<či‘on’),sa-tːi‘at/along the front, as soon as’ (<sa‘in front, ago’), andb-i-tːi‘inside, through’ (<b-i‘in, inside’) (14).
(14) di-la
‘Through my garden, up, down, they brought him to Izberbash.’
There are few more adverbs based on the adverbs/postpositions, namelyhitːille‘on the back, later’ (<hitːi),b-atːura‘from inside’ (<tːura), andqaršːa‘upper side (of the village)’
(<qar‘at/on the top’ plus the loc-form of the nounšːi‘village’, which isšːa).
7.1.3 Other spatial adverbs
Sanzhi has some more spatial adverbs of which the most important ones are given in (15).
A few of them are formed by means of the adverbializing suffix-le(§9.6.3). For spatial adverbs that have the meaning of indefinite pro-forms see §4.6.
(15) kat’‘down’ bet‘there’
šːulum‘by, past’ (<šːal‘side’) sat‘here’
alaw‘around, in a circle’ bet-sat‘here and there’
qili‘at home’ (<qal‘house’) guq-le‘low’
haraq-le‘far’ hek-le‘close, near’
b-arx-le‘directly, straight’ kʷi‘in the hands’