Geochemical characterization and origin of Southeastern and Eastern European loesses (Serbia, Romania, Ukraine)
5.2 Southeastern/Eastern European loess – representative samples of the upper continental crust
As the A–CN–K plot shows, near Danube loess is derived from material with UCC-like composition. Though, due to grain size/mineral sorting no clear source composition is revealed by this diagram for Stary Kaydaky, initial UCC-like composition is evident by the Fe2O3/Al2O3 ratio, also for this site. Hence, loess deposits of the Danube Basin/Drobrudja and the Dnieper area represent average samples of the upper continental crust. This result is conform with studies from other loess regions of the world (Taylor et al., 1983; Gallet et al., 1996, 1998). For the loess material at the Dnieper River, originating from glaciofluvial sediments of the Fennoscandinavian ice-sheet, the most effective sampling process was probably glacial grinding of bedrocks with subsequent mixing of the different rock end-members. For the lower Danube Basin/Drobrudja loess, source material is proposed to be provided by river transport of the Danube River and its tributaries, draining the Eastern Alps
and the Carpathian Basin. Since already floodplain sediments of the Danube catchment mostly show a UCC-like initial composition, of the unweathered material (Fig. 1-5, Fig. 1-6), sampling and mixing occurs by fluvial processes. In both cases, loess is not the primary sample of the UCC, however, loess deposits act as archives for UCC samples provided by glaciofluvial and fluvial systems, respectively. Yet, the information about UCC composition, derived by loess geochemistry, can be biased by several effects such as mineral weathering, grain size and mineral sorting and dilution effects by minerals such as quartz (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). The A–CN–K plot indicates that the samples of the loess-paleosol-sequences, also including “pure loess“ samples, are substantially altered by weathering with respect to UCC composition. So at least one cycle of erosion/transport (activity phase) and sedimentation/weathering (stability phase) has to be proposed for the source material, before it is entrained and transported by the wind as dust and finally deposited and archived as loess.
For the lower Danube Basin loess, this previous recycling phase may either have occurred during the material is retained in the fluvial system or already during the formation of the various types of clastic sedimentary rocks in the drainage basin. Since for the material of Stary Kaydaky the intersect of the sorting trend with the weathering trend of the UCC is clearly situated towards lower CaO* + NaO contents (Fig. 1-4), also here at least one phase of recycling has to be proposed. For comparison, the composition of a probably prevailing original source itself i.e. the Baltic shield, does not reveal remarkable changes with respect to the UCC (Fig. 1-4, Fig. 1-5). This was expected, since the Precambrian shields are commonly taken as representatives of the average upper continental crust (Ronov and Yaroshevskiy, 1976; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Condie, 1993). However, question arises about the timing of this weathering phase in the loess material of the Dnieper area. There is no simple answer for this, especially with respect to the high extent of weathering, compared to the aeolian sediments of the Danube Basin. Following the evolution history of the loess in the Dnieper area, we have to start with the uptake of the relativly unweathered bedrock of the Baltic shield
into the ice shield. During the phase of the glaciofluvial transport in sub- and proglacial streams, material gets further crushed and grinded. Generally, chemical weathering in the subglacial environment is thought to be low, according to the Arrhenius relationship between temperature and reaction rate. We are aware that significant silicate weathering in subglacial systems was observed e.g. by Tranter et al. (2002) and Anderson (2005). The latter regarded glaciers even as “flow-through reactors”. In spite of the long transport distance and residence time in the subglacial system of the Fennoscandinavian ice sheet, for us subglacial weathering does not appear likely to explain such strong initial weathering of loess. Also proglacial weathering and alteration during loessification are not expected to act sufficiently strong.
Therefore, only a combination of all three weathering phases may account for a relatively high initial weathering of the Stary Kaydaky loess. Yet, this should then be still reduced compared to loess with an alluvial source. Thus, it is to conclude that sedimentary rocks (of the Russian platform) with an inherited weathering signal, entering the glaciofluvial system, have to be the dominant source of the material and not the Baltic shield. This corresponds also to the findings of Gallet et al. (1998) that loess deposits from various parts of the world show evidences of previous sedimentary recycling. As to this, also Jahn et al. (2001) emphasized the general importance of sedimentary rocks as dust sources.
Generally, the deviations from the UCC element composition of the “pure loess” mostly reflect selective mineral enrichment and depletion, respectively, according to the weathering resistance (Schnetger, 1992). In the studied Southeastern/Eastern European loesses, low mobility elements such as Si, Ti and some trace elements (e.g. Zr, Hf) (Fig. 1-6), which are commonly associated with weathering-resistant minerals such as quartz, rutil and zircon, are enriched compared to UCC composition. Conversely, quartz accumulation leads to a dilution effect, affecting the concentrations of the other elements, as is well indicated for the Stary Kaydaky loess. The enrichment of the relatively mobile elements Ca and Mg compared to
UCC is explained by the accumulation of secondary carbonates, leached from the paleosols in the underlying loess units.
6 Conclusions
1) As already proofed for several other loess regions such as the Chinese loess plateau (Gallet et al., 1996, 1998), Western Europe (Gallet et al., 1998) and the Midwest of the USA (Taylor et al., 1983), loess of the Danube Basin/Dobrudja and the Dnieper areas represent a representative sample of the upper continental crust.
2) Compared to the upper continental crustal composition, loess shows general evidence of at least one previous recycling phase, which probably is an inherited signal from sedimentary source rocks. This is particularly obvious from the depletion of some elements, reflecting weathering resistance of their host minerals and element mobility.
Further bias of initial average UCC composition is due to mineral dilution effects especially by quartz and – if not corrected for – by secondary carbonates, as well as mineral and grain size sorting.
3) Loess of the Stary Kaydaky site (Dnieper loess area) is most likely derived from glaciofluvial sediments of the Fennoscandinavian ice sheet in the Ukraine and adjacent areas. Initial source rocks are proposed to be sedimentites of the Russian platform.
Prevailing cold stage paleowind direction in the Ukraine was WNW to N due to katabatic winds descending from the ice sheet.
4) .In the southern Pannonian Basin (Vojvodina, Serbia), where the course of the Danube river turns from South to East, thick loess plateaus build up by dust supply from two wind systems: N/NW winds, as they prevail in the main part of the Pannonian Basin and SE winds in the Southeastern part of the basin. This loess is confirmed by our geochemical results to originate from alluvial sediments of the Danube river. Due to the element composition, the area of the northern Alpine cover nappes and foreland
glaciations (not including the Inn area), does not seem to be the dominant initial source. Weathering products of the Carpathian mountain range, drained by the Tisza River and several smaller Danube tributaries, and of the Austroalpine base nappes, drained by the Drava River, appear to be more likely source areas with respect to element composition. Though not evaluated geochemically, the Inn River is also considered as significant sediment supplier into the Pannonian Basin (Smalley and Leach, 1978).
5) As in Serbia, the loess of the Dobrudja plateau (Romania) is predominantly derived from Danube alluvium. However, a minor but geochemically significant contribution of one or several additional source areas is evident. The prevailing paleowind direction was WNW in the Western Walachian plain and N to NE in the Dobrudja and eastern Walachian plain. Thus, the additional material input is supposed to be derived from the Ukrainian glaciofluvial deposits, probably with strongly variable contributions from local sand dune fields.
6) Further research is needed for a better differentiation between the possible source areas of the Southeastern/Eastern Eurpean loesses. Isotope studies (87Sr/86Sr,
143Nd/144Nd, 187Os/188Os, 187Re/188Os, δ18O of quartz) and element composition of different grain size fractions may be promising with this respect (Mizota and Matsuhisa, 1995; Hattori et al., 2003; Honda et al., 2004; Nakano et al., 2004).
Acknowledgements
We thank Tivadar Gaudenyi and Мladjen Јovanović for assistance during fieldwork in Serbia, J. Eidam (University of Greifswald) for XRF analyses and Dr Michael Zech for comments on the manuscript. Financial support was provided by the German Research Foundation DFG (GL 327/8-2).
References
Akaдemия Hayk Moлдabckoй CCP, 1978. Пoчbooбpaзyющиe Пopoды (Surface sediments) In: Главное Управление Геодезии и Kартографии при Совете Министров СССP, Atлac Moлдabckoй CCP (Atlas of the Moldavian SSR), Moscow (In Russian).
Anderson, S.P., 2005. Glaciers show direct linkage between erosion rate and chemical weathering fluxes. Geomorphology 67, 147-157.
Avramov, V.I., Jordanova, D., Hoffmann, V., Roesler, W., 2006. The role of dust source area and pedogenesis in three loess-paleosol sections from North Bulgaria: a mineral magnetic study. Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica 50 (2), 259-282.
Batista, M.J., Demetriades, A., Pirc, S., De Vos, W., Bidovec, M., Martins, L., 2006. Factor analysis interpretation of European soil, stream and floodplain sediment data. In:
Tarvainen, T., De Vos, W. (Eds.), Geochemical Atlas of Europe. Part 2. Interpretation of geochemical maps, additional tables, figures, maps, and related publications.
Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo, 567-618.
Bolikhovskaya, N.S., Molodkov A.N., 2006. East European loess-palaeosol sequences:
palynology, stratigraphy and correlation. Quaternary International 149, 24-36.
Bronger, A., 1976. Zur quartären Klima – und Landschaftsentwicklung des Karpatenbeckens auf paläopedologischer und bodengeographischer Grundlage. Kieler Geographische Schriften 45.
Bronger A. 2003. Correlation of loess–paleosol sequences in East and Central Asia with SE Central Europe – Towards a continental Quaternary pedostratigraphy and paleoclimatic history. Quaternary International 106-107, 11-31.
Buggle, B., Hambach, U., Glaser, B., Gerasimenko, N., Marković, S., Glaser, I., Zöller, L., 2009. Stratigraphy, and spatial and temporal paleoclimatic trends in Southeastern/Eastern European loess–paleosol sequences. Quaternary International 196, 86-106.
Catt, J.A., 1991. Soils as indicators of Quaternary climatic change in mid-latitude regions.
Geoderma 51, 167-187.
Chapman, S.L., Horn, M.E., 1968. Parent material uniformity and origin of silty soils in Northwest Arkansas based on zirconium – titanium contents. Soil Science Society American Journal 32, 265-271.
Chugunny, Y.G., Matoshko, A.V., 1995. Dnieper glaciation – till deposits of ice-marginal zones. In: Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S., Gibbard, P. (Eds.), Glacial Deposits in North-East Europe. Balkema, Rotterdam, 249-256.
Condie, K.C., 1993. Chemical composition and evolution of the upper continental crust:
Contrasting results from surface samples and shales. Chemical Geology 104, 1-37.
Conea, A., 1969. Profils de Loess en Roumanie. Supplément au Bulletin de l´Association française pour l´étude du Quaternaire, 127-134.
Conea, A., Balley, R., Canarache, A., 1972. Guidebook to excursions of the INQUA loess symposium in Romania. Guidebooks for excursions 10, 54pp.
Derbyshire, E., Kemp, R.A., Meng, X., 1997. Climate change, loess and paleosols: proxy measures and resolution in North China. Journal of the Geological Society, London 154, 793-805.
Dodonov, A.E., Zhou, L.P., Markova, A.K., Tchepalyga, A.L., Trubikhin, V.M., Akesandrovski, A.L, Simakova, A.N., 2006. Middle-Upper Pleistocene bio-climatic and magnetic records of the Northern Black Sea Coastal Area. Quaternary International 149, 44-54.
Dorofeev, L.M., 1969. Liodovikovi ta vodno-liodovikovi vidkladi. In: Bondarchuk V.G.
(Ed.), Stratigrafiya URSR. Vol. XI. Antrophogen. Kiev, 145-170 (In Ukrainian).
Eissmann, L., 2002. Quaternary geology of eastern Germany (Saxony, Saxon-Anhalt, South Brandenburg, Thüringia), type area of the Elsterian and Saalian Stages in Europe.
Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 1275-1346.
Evlogiev, J., 1993. Paleogeography and stratigraphy of the Early Pleistocene in near Danube Northeastern Bulgaria. Dissertation, Bulgarian Academy of Science, Sofia. (in Bulgarian).
Fuchs, M., Rousseau, D. D., Antoine, P., Hatté, C, Gauthier, C., Marković, S., Zöller, L., 2008. Chronology of the Last Climatic Cycle (Upper Pleistocene) of the Surduk loess sequence, Vojvodina, Serbia. Boreas 37, 66-73.
Gábris, G., Nádor, A., 2007. Long-term fluvial archives in Hungary: response of the Danube and Tisza rivers to tectonic movements and climatic changes during the Quaternary: a review and new synthesis. Quarternary Science Reviews 26 (22-24), 2758-2882.
Gaigalas, A., 1978. Zakonomernosty rasprostraneniya kristallicheskich rukovodyazhich valunov v kraevykch lednikovykck obrazovaniyakch zapadnoi chasty SSSR. In:
Bondcharchuk. V.G, (Eds.), Kraevye obrazovaniya materikovykch oledeneny.
Materialy V Vsesouznogo sovezhaniya, Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 56-62 (In Ukrainian).
Gaigalas, A., 1982. The possibilities of moraine correlation according to their debris composition. In: Goretskiy G.I., Chebatoreva , N.S., Shick, S.M. (Eds.), Moskovskiy lednikovyi pokrov Vostochnoi Evropy (Moscow ice sheet in Eastern Europe). Nauka, Moscow, 42-43 (In Russian).
Gallet, S., Jahn, B., Torii, M., 1996. Geochemical characterization of the Luochuan loess-paleosol sequence, China, and paleoclimatic implications. Chemical Geology 133, 67-88.
Gallet, S., Jahn, B., Van Vliet Lanoë , Dia, A., Rossello, E., 1998. Loess geochemistry and its implications for the particle origin and composition of the upper continental crust.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 156, 157-172.
Gerasimenko, N. P., 2004. Quaternary evolution of zonal paleoecosystems in Ukraine.
Habilitation thesis, Geographycal Institute of National Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Kyiv (in Ukrainian).
Gozhik, P.F., 1995. Glacial history of the Ukraine. In: Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S., Gibbard, P.
(Eds.), Glacial Deposits in North-East Europe. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Haase, D., Fink, J., Haase, G., Ruske, R., Pécsi, M., Richter, H., Altermann, M., Jäger, K.-D., 2007. Loess in Europe-its spatial distribution based on a European Loess Map, scale 1:2,500,000, Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 1301-1312.
Hattori, Y., Suzuki, K., Honda, M., Shimizu, H., 2003. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 67. 1195-1205.
Heller, F., Liu, T., 1984. Magnetism of Chinese loess deposits. Geophysical Journal Royal Astronomical Society 77. 125-141.
Honda, M., Yabuki, S., Shimizu, H., 2004. Geochemical and isotopic studies of aeolian sediments in China. Sedimentology 51, 211-230.
http://eusoils.jrc.it, 2006a. Downloaded at 14.12 2006. Почвенная карта Украинской ССР (Soil map of the Ukraine), In: Главное управление геодезии и картографии при Совете Министров СССР (Ed.), 1977. Moscow.
http://eusoils.jrc.it, 2006b. Downloaded at 14.12.2006. Harta geomorfologicâ (geomorphological map), In: Atlasul Republicii Socialise România, 1976.
Jahn, B., Gallet, S., Han, J., 2001. Geochemistry of the Xining, Xifeng and Jixian sections, loess plateau of China: eolian dust provenance and paleosol evolution during the last 140 ka. Chemical Geology 178, 71-94.
Jordanova, D., Petersen, N., 1999. Palaeoclimatic record from a loess-soil profile in northeastern Bulgaria—I. Rock magnetic properties. Geophysical Journal International 138, 520-532.
Kabata-Pendias, A., Pendias, H., 2001. Trace elements in soils and plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Kostić, N., Protic, N., 2000. Pedology and mineralogy of loess profiles at Kapela-Batajnica and Stalac, Serbia. Catena 41, 217-227.
Kukla, G.J., 1977. Pleistocene land–sea correlation I. Europe. Earth Science Reviews 13, 307-374.
Kukla, G., An, Z., 1989. Loess stratigraphy in Central China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 72, 203-225.
Kutterolf, S., 2001. Die klastischen Sedimente der karbonen Hochwipfel– und Auernig Formation der Ostkarawanken (Österreich/Slowenien). Dissertation, University of Stuttgart, URL: http://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/opus/volltexte/2002/994/, URN:
urn:nbn:de:bsz:93-opus-9948.
Lindner, L., Bogutsky, A., Gozhik, P., Marciniak, B., Marks, L., £ancont, M., Wojtanowicz, J., 2002. Correlation of main climatic glacial-interglacial and loess–palaeosol cycles in the Pleistocene of Poland and Ukraine. Acta Geologica Polonica 4, 450-469.
Lindner, L., Gozhik, P., Marciniak, B., Marks, L., Yelovicheva, Y., 2004. Geological Quaterly 48 (2), 97-114.
Lis, J., Pasieczna, A., 2006. Geochemical characteristics of soil and stream sediment in the area of glacial deposits in Europe. In: Tarvainen, T., De Vos, W. (Eds.), Geochemical Atlas of Europe. Part 2. Interpretation of geochemical maps, additional tables, figures, maps, and related publications. Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo, 519-540.
Macoun, J., Králík, F., 1995. Glacial history of the Czech Republic. In: Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S., Gibbard, P. (Eds.), Glacial Deposits in North-East Europe. Balkema, Rotterdam, 389-405.
Marković, S.B., Heller, F., Kukla, G.J., Gaudenyi, T., Jovanović, M., Miljković, L.J., 2003.
Magnetostratigraphy of Stari Slankamen loess section. Zbornik Radova Instituta za Geografiju 32, 20-28 (in Serbian with English summary).
Marković, S.B., Oches, E.A., Sümegi, P., Jovanović, M., Gaudenyi, T., 2006. An introduction to the Upper and Middle Pleistocene loess-paleosol sequences of Ruma section (Vojvodina, Serbia). Quaternary International 149, 80-86.
Marković, S. B., Oches E. A., McCoy W. D., Frechen, M., Gaudenyi T., 2007. Malacological and sedimentological evidence for ‘‘warm’’ glacial climate from the Irig loess sequence, Vojvodina, Serbia, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8, Q09008.
Marković, S.B., Bokhorst, M, Vandenberghe, J., McCoy, W.D., Oches, E.A., Hambach, U., Gaudenyi, T., Jovanović, M., Zöller, L., Stevens, T., Machalett, B., 2008. Late Pleistocene loess-paleosol sequences in the Vojvodina region, North Serbia. Journal of Quaternary Science 23 (1), 73-84.
Matoshko, A.V., 1995. Dnieper glaciation - basal till deposits. In: Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S., Gibbard, P. (Eds.), Glacial Deposits in North-East Europe. Balkema, Rotterdam, 231-239.
Matoshko, A.V., 1995a. The Dnieper Glaciation: bedrock dislocations and glacial erosional landscapes. In: Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S., Gibbard, P. (Eds.), Glacial Deposits in North-East Europe. Balkema, Rotterdam, 241-248.
Matoshko, A.V., 1995b. Dnieper Glaciation – meltwater deposits. In: Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S., Gibbard, P. (Eds.), Glacial Deposits in North-East Europe. Balkema, Rotterdam, 257-263
McLennan, S.M., 1993. Weathering and global denudation. The Journal of Geology 101, 295-303.
McLennan, S.M., Hemming, S., McDaniel, D.K., Hanson, G.N., 1993. Geochemical approaches to sedimentation, provenance, and tectonics. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 284, 21-39.
Minkov, M., 1968. Loess in North Bulgaria. Bulgarian Academy of Science, Sofia. (in Bulgarian).
Mizota, C., Matsuhisa, Y., 1995. Isotopic evidence for the eolian origin of quartz and mica in soils developed on volcanic material in the Canary Archipelago. Geoderma 66, 313-320.
Muhs, D.R., Bettis, E.A., 2000. Geochemical variations in Peoria loess of Western Iowa indicate paleowinds of midcontinental North America during last glaciation.
Quaternary Research 53, 49-61.
Muhs, D.R., Benedict, J.B., 2006. Eolian additions to late Quaternary alpine soils, Indian Peaks Wilderness area, Colorado Front Range. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 38, 120-130.
Muhs, D. R., Budahn, J.R., 2006. Geochemical evidence for the origin of late Quaternary loess in central Alaska. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 43, 323-337.
Muhs, D.R., Bush, C.A., Stewart, K.C., 1990. Geochemical evidence of Saharan dust parent material for soils developed on Quaternary limestones of Caribbean and Western Atlantic islands. Quaternary Research 33, 157-177.
Muhs, D.R., Bettis, E.A., Been, J., McGreehin, J.P., 2001. Impact of Climate and Parent Material on Chemical Weathering in Loess-derived Soils of the Mississippi River Valley. Soil Science Society of America Journal 65, 1761-1777.
Nádor, A., Lantos, M., Toth-Makk, A., Thamó-Bozsó, E., 2003. Milankovitch-scale multi-proxy records from fluvial sediments of the öast 2.6 MA, Pannonian Basin, Hungary.
Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (10), 2157-2175.
Nakano, T., Yokoo, Y., Nishikawa, M., Koyanagi, H., 2004. Regional Sr-Nd isotopic ratios of soil minerals in northern China as Asian dust fingerprints. Atmospheric Environment 38, 3061-3067.
Nawrocki, J., Bakhmutov, V., Bogucki, A., Dolecki, L., 1999. The paleo- and petromagnetic record in the Polish and Ukrainian loess-paleosol sequences. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Part A: Solid Earth and Geodesy 24, 773-777.
Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1984. Prediction of some weathering trends of plutonic and volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and kinetic considerations. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48, 1523-1534.
Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1989. Formation and diagenesis of weathering profiles. The Journal of Geology 97, 129-147.
Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., McLennan, S.M., Keays, R.R., 1996. Effects of chemical weathering and sorting on the petrogenesis of siliciclastic sediments, with implications for provenance studies. The Journal of Geology 104, 525-542.
Panaiotu, C. G., Panaiotu, E. C., Grama, A., Necula, C., 2001. Paleoclimatic record from a loess-paleosol profile in Southeastern Romania. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (A) 26, 893-898.
Pfannenstiel, M., 1950. Die Quartärgeschichte des Donaudeltas. Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen 6.
Pécsi, M., 1990. Loess is not just the accumulation of dust. Quaternary International 7/8, 1-21.
Pye, K., 1995. The nature, origin and accumulation of loess. Quaternary Science Reviews 14, 653-667.
Reeder, S., Taylor, H., Shaw, R.A., Demetriades, A., 2006. Introduction to the chemistry and geochemistry of the elements. In: Tarvainen, T., De Vos, W. (Eds.), Geochemical
Atlas of Europe. Part 2. Interpretation of geochemical maps, additional tables, figures, maps, and related publications. Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo, 48-429.
Reuther, A.U., Urdea, P., Geiger, C., Ivy-Ochs, S., Niller, H.-P., Kubik, P.W., Heiner, K., 2007. Late Pleistocene glacial chronology of the Pietrele Valley, Rezetat Mountains, Southern Carpathians constrained by 10Be exposure ages and pedological investigations. Quaternary International 164-165, 151-169.
Ronov, A.B., Yaroshevskiy, A.A., 1976. A new model for the chemical structure of the earth`s crust. Geochemistry International 13, 89-120.
Rousseau, D.D., Gerasimenko, N.P., Matviischina, Z., Kukla, G.J., 2001. Late Pleistocene environments of the Central Ukraine. Quaternary Research 56, 349-356.
Rozycki, St. Zb., 1967. Le sens des vents portent la poussiére de loess à la lumière de l`analyse des formes d`accumulation du loess en Bulgarie et en Europe Centrale.
Revue de Géomorphologie Dynamique 1, 1-9.
Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger, Zs., 2007. Tectonic and climatic forcing in Quaternary landscape evolution in the central Pannonian Basin: A quantitative, geomorphological, geochronological and structural analysis. Dissertation, VU University Amsterdam, URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1871/10689, downloaded at 08.10.07.
Salminen, R., Batista, M. J., Bidovec, M., Demetriades, A., De Vivo, B., De Vos, W., Duris, M., Gilucis, A., Gregorauskiene, V., Halamic, J., Heitzmann, P., Lima, A., Jordan, G., Klaver, G., Klein, P., Lis, J., Locutura, J., Marsina, K., Mazreku, A., O'Connor, P. J., Olsson, S.Å., Ottesen, R.-T., Petersell, V., Plant, J.A., Reeder, S., Salpeteur, I., Sandström, H., Siewers, U., Steenfelt, A., Tarvainen, T., 2005. Geochemical Atlas of Europe. Part 1: Background Information, Methodology and Maps. Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo. (http://www.gtk.fi/publ/foregsatlas), downloaded at 17.12.2006.
Schnetger, B., 1992. Chemical composition of loess from a local and worldwide view. Neues Jahrbuch Mineralogische Abhandlungen, Monatshefte 1, 29-47.
Sirenko N.A., Turlo, S.I., 1986. Evolution of soils and vegetation of Ukraine in the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Naukova Dumka, Kiev (in Russian).
Smalley, I., 1995. Making the material: The formation of silt-sized primary mineral particles for loess deposits. Quaternary Science Reviews 14, 645-651.
Smalley, I., Leach, J.A., 1978. The origin and distribution of the loess in the Danube Basin and associated regions of East-Central Europe- a review. Sedimentary Geology, 21, 1-26.
Smykatz-Kloss, B., 2003. Die Lößvorkommen des Pleiser Hügellandes bei Bonn und von
Smykatz-Kloss, B., 2003. Die Lößvorkommen des Pleiser Hügellandes bei Bonn und von