Scientification, Traditionalization, Secrecy, and Equality*

Elina Helander-Renvall and Inkeri Markkula

Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to elaborate how Sámi traditional knowledge is ar-ticulated and transferred, especially as part of research activities. As a starting point, we will discuss traditional knowledge and its various understandings.

Further on, we will trace and address some of the concerns that Sámi have in relation to how their reality is researched and described. Special attention will be paid to the secrecy surrounding some Sámi traditions and some knowl-edge in the context of conducting research on such issues; the scientifĳication of Sámi knowledge; the traditionalization (actualization) of various traditions;

and the need for equality between scientifĳic and traditional knowledge.

Traditional knowledge ( TK) has many defĳinitions. Traditional knowledge may be defĳined as knowledge that has a long historical and cultural continu-ity, having been passed down through generations, as Berkes has noted.1 In the book on traditional knowledge by Porsanger and Guttorm2 the concept árbediehtu (inherited knowledge, a Northern Sámi word) is used to refer to Sámi knowledge. They state that árbediehtu is ‘the collective wisdom and skills of the Sámi people used to enhance their livelihood for centuries. It has been

* We would like to thank Regional Council of Lapland, European Regional Development Fund, and University of Lapland for the fĳinancial support for the project Traditional Eco-logical Knowledge in the Sami Homeland Region of Finland which was conducted at the Arctic Centre, Rovaniemi during 1.1.2014-30.4.2015. The general aim of this project was to promote the status of Sami traditional ecological knowledge through support to the Sami craftswomen. www.arcticcentre.org.

1 Berkes, F. 1993. Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Practice. In: Inglis, J. (ed.). Traditional Ecological Knowledge; Concepts and Cases. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature and the International Development Research Centre, 1-9; Berkes, F. 2012. Sacred Ecology. Philadel-phia: Taylor and Francis.

2 Porsanger, J. and Guttorm, G. 2011. Building up the Field Study and Research on Sami Tra-ditional Knowledge (Arbediehtu). In: Porsanger, J. and Guttorm, G. (eds.). Working with Traditional Knowledge: Communities, Institutions, Information Systems, Law and Ethics.

Diedut 1/11: 13-57.

passed down from generation to generation both orally and through work and practical experience. Through this continuity, the concept of árbediehtu ties the past, present and future together’.3 In a more limited sense, Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) refers to cumulative knowledge of the local en-vironment and ecosystems and the ways how to use and manage them. It is knowledge held by Indigenous Peoples or local communities, encompassing language, naming and classifĳication systems, resource use practices, rituals, spirituality and worldview.

Helander-Renvall and Markkula have emphasized the signifĳicance of eco-logical understanding as a central aspect of Sámi traditional knowledge.4 We think that transmission of traditional knowledge is particularly important: the focus should not be in the fĳirst place on ‘getting information’.5

Currently, there is great concern about the worldwide decrease of tradition-al lifestyles and related knowledge. The knowledge, which is no longer used, documented or passed on from one generation to the next, will disappear. Tra-ditional knowledge is part of intangible cultural heritage, which, according to UNESCO, contains oral traditions, practices and knowledge concerning nature and the universe, and knowledge and skills on how to make traditional handi-crafts.6 Therefore, transfer of traditional knowledge is central in the preserva-tion of indigenous cultural heritage.

Accordingly, TEK is increasingly valued alongside scientifĳic knowledge in research and conservation effforts especially in Arctic areas, where climate change signifĳicantly impacts on the traditional livelihoods of Indigenous Peo-ples. Traditional knowledge is currently also used in revitalization processes, embodied in the production of cultural continuity. Studies integrating TEK and scientifĳic knowledge in the Arctic region are numerous.7 Many of these

3 Ibid. 18.

4 Helander-Renvall, E. and Markkula, I. 2011. Luonnon monimuotoisuus ja saamelaiset. Bi-ologista monimuotoisuutta koskevan yleissopimuksen artikla 8( j):n toimeenpanoa tukeva selvitys Suomen saamelaisalueella [Biodiversity and Sami people. Investigation to support the implementation of Convention on Biodiversity article 8 (j) in Sami domicile region in Finland] Suomen ympäristö 12. Helsinki: Suomen ympäristöministeriö; Markkula, I.

and Helander-Renvall, E. 2014. Ekologisen Perinnetiedon Käsikirja [Traditional Ecological Knowledge Handbook] Arktisen keskuksen tiedotteita 59. Rovaniemi: Lapin yliopisto.

5 Nadasdy, P. 1999. The politics of TEK. Power and the ‘integration’ of knowledge. In: Arctic Anthropology 36 (1-2): 1-18.

6 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003.

7 Bogoslovskaya, L. 2003. The Bowhead whale offf Chukotka: integration of scientifĳic and traditional knowledge. In: McCartney, A.P. (ed.). Indigenous Ways to the Present. Native Whaling in the Western Arctic. Edmonton and Salt Lake City: Canadian Circumpolar

Insti-studies research the local adaptation to climate and environmental change.

The potential of TEK in climate change research and adaptation to environ-mental changes has indeed been acknowledged in diffferent studies and re-ports, including the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment and assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).8 The fourth IPCC report noted that indigenous knowledge is an invaluable basis for developing adaptation and natural resource management strategies in response to envi-ronmental and other forms of change, and the fĳifth IPCC report states that indigenous, local, and traditional forms of knowledge are a major resource for adapting to climate change.9 Natural resource dependent communities, har-boring Indigenous peoples, have a long history of adapting to highly variable and changing social and ecological conditions. The usefulness of indigenous knowledge is already now important for climate research and many inquiries lean on indigenous knowledge.10

The value of traditional knowledge was fĳirst acknowledged internation-ally in the (1992) UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Article 8(j) of the convention obliges the State parties to respect, preserve and maintain the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities that embody traditional lifestyles relevant to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the ap-proval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and

tute and University of Utah Press, 209-254; ACIA 2005. Impact of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Krupnik, I.I. and Ray, G.C. 2007. Pacifĳic walruses, indigenous hunters, and climate change: bridging scientifĳic and indigenous knowledge. In: Deep Sea Research 54: 2946-2957; Magga, O.H., Mathiesen, S.D., Corell, R.W., Oskal, A. 2009. Reindeer Herding, Traditional Knowledge and Adapta-tion to Climate Change and Loss of Grazing Land. Ealat project report. Alta: Fagtrykk Idé AS; Krupnik, I., Aporta, C., Gearheard, S., Laidler, G.J., Kielsen Holm, L. (eds.). 2010. SIKU:

Knowing Our Ice Documenting Inuit Sea Ice Knowledge and Use.Springer; Weatherhead, E., Gearheard, S. and Barry, R.G. 2010. Changes in weather persistence: Insight from Inuit knowledge. In: Global Environmental Change 20: 523-528.

8 ACIA 2005; IPCC 2007. Climate change 2007. Synthesis report; IPCC 2014. Climate Change:

Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

9 IPCC 2007; 2014.

10 Lambert, L. 2003. From ‘Savages’ to Scientists: Mainstream Science Moves Toward Recog-nizing Traditional Knowledge. In: Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Educa-tion 15(1): 11-12; McGregor, D. 2006. TradiEduca-tional Ecological Knowledge. In: Ideas: the Arts and Science Review 3(1). Online.

practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefĳits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices.

As the value of TEK has been recognized by scientists, it is often collected and integrated in studies in order to fĳill gaps in knowledge about species distri-butions or behavior, to collect observations of changes in climate, or to under-stand traditional management practices and how these contribute to resource conservation.11 However, if the studies into which TEK is integrated have quan-tioriented objectives, this may lead researchers to code, categorize and ty-pologize the narratives of TEK holders.12 That can result in a simplifĳied picture of TEK. Gearheard et al. have paid attention to the diffferent implications of knowledge.13 For example, for Inuit following the traditional lifestyle, knowing the sea ice means that one gets good food and has freedom, as sea ice is the base for hunting and traveling.

This knowledge, gathered through generations and shared with others in the community, is evolving and living knowledge. Moreover, if TEK is coded and simplifĳied, links and connections between nature, traditions and cultural identity may be lost. For example Sakakibara has studied how sea ice, sea ice loss, cultural identity, human-animal relations and drumming traditions of Inupiaq are all connected.14

Critical Voices

In the context of Arctic research, the following defĳinition of TEK by Berkes is commonly used: ‘TEK is a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the rela-tionship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their

11 Shackerofff, J.M. and Campbell, L.M. 2007. Traditional Ecological Knowledge in tion Research: Problems and Prospects for their Constructive Engagement. In: Conserva-tion & Society 5: 343-360.

12 Agrawal, A. 2002. Indigenous knowledge and the politics of classifĳication. In: Internation-al SociInternation-al Science JournInternation-al 54(173): 287-297.

13 Gearheard, S.F., Kielsen, Holm, L., Huntington, H., Leavitt, J.M., Mahoney, A.R., Opie, M., Oshima, T. Sanguya, J. (eds.). 2013. The Meaning of Ice. People and sea ice in three Arctic communities. Hanover and New Hampshire: International Polar Institute Press.

14 Sakakibara, C. 2008. ‘Our home is drowning’: Iñupiat storytelling and climate change in Point Hope. In: Alaska.Geographical Review 98: 456-475; Sakakibara C. 2009. ‘No Whale, No Music’: Iñupiaq drumming and global warming. In: Polar Record 45: 289-303; Sakak-ibara C. 2010. Into the whaling cycle: Cetaceousness and climate change among the Inu-piat of Arctic. In: Alaska. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 100: 1003-1012.

environment’.15 For Indigenous Peoples themselves, however, TEK is much more than a ‘body of knowledge’. McGregor has emphasized that ‘body of knowledge’ can be considered as something that is separate from the people who hold and practice this knowledge, which is not the case with indigenous knowledge.16 Moreover, the defĳinition conceptualizes TEK as a set of proce-dural ecological knowledge, for example the knowledge of animal behavior or plant distributions.17 Consequently, a ‘body of knowledge’ can take on a par-ticular meaning and express itself as decontextualized and fragmented. TEK is dynamic and complex and connects biophysical and social processes. All this validates the notion of TEK as indigenous knowledge that is rooted in rela-tionships and participations.18 As stated by Cruikshank, traditional knowledge is produced and expressed in human encounters, not encapsulated in closed traditions.19 It is also an aspect of spiritual existence and connection to land.20 It must also be stressed that traditional knowledge is closely connected to lo-cal practices, subsistence activities and survival possibilities; in that sense it is very vulnerable, especially if regarded and used as a commodity.21 What is more, many researchers avoid using the concept ‘traditional’ because the term is seen as contrary to change. They prefer the term ‘indigenous’. 22 Similarly, Kuokkanen explains: ‘talking about “traditional” ways of life or “traditional”

culture can suggest racist notions of a frozen culture giving rise to false views

15 Berkes 1993:3.

16 McGregor, D. 2004a. Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Sustainable Development: To-wards Coexistence. In: Blaser, M., Feit, H. A., Mc Rae, G. (eds.). In the Way of Development.

London: Zed Books, 72-91; McGregor, D. 2004b. Coming Full Circle. Indigenous knowl-edge, Environment, and our future. In: American Indian Quaterly 28(3-4): 358-410.

17 Casimirri, G. 2003. Problems with integrating traditional ecological knowledge into con-temporary resource management. XII World Forestry Congress, Quebec City, Canada 2003.

18 see: Wilson, S. 2008. Research Is Ceremony. Indigenous Research Methods. Halifax and Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing.

19 Cruikshank, J. 2005. Do Glaciers Listen? Local Knowledge, Colonial Encounters, and Social Imagination. Vancouver: UBC Press, 4.

20 Helander-Renvall, E. 2014. Relationships between Sámi reindeer herders, lands, and rein-deer. In: Marvin, G. and McHugh, S. (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Human-Animal Studies.

London and New York: Routledge, 246-258.

21 Helander, E. 1999. Sami subsistence activities. Spatial aspects and structuration. In: Acta Borealia, A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies 16(2): 7-25.

22 Porsanger, J. 2011. The Problematisation of the Dichotomy of Modernity and Tradition in Indigenous and Sami contexts. In: Porsanger, J. and Guttorm, G. (eds.). Working with Tradi-tional Knowledge: Communities, Institutions, Information Systems, Law and Ethics. Diedut 1/11: 225-252.

of authenticity and “traditional practices”. This, for its part, denies develop-ment and change in indigenous cultures’.23

Increasing use of traditional knowledge including TEK in research has in-deed raised many questions and debates as traditional knowledge is an am-biguous term, as explained above. The ACIA-report, for example, notes the dif-fĳiculties in defĳining TEK.24 In addition to the above, scientists have also been criticized for their treatment of TEK as mere data or facts, leaving many as-pects of TEK, such as spirituality and ecological relationships, unexplored.25 This might be because holistic aspects of traditional knowledge can be con-fusing from a scientifĳic perspective. Berkes admits that TEK is more than just information: it describes the spiritual relationship Indigenous Peoples share with the land, and is a process of gathering knowledge and conclusion draw-ing.26 In reality, the concept ‘traditional knowledge’ refers not only to informa-tion or facts but also to ways of knowing.27 These ways of knowing are based on holistic aspects of indigenous knowledge. Holistic knowledge is relational and, as indicated above, it is strongly rooted in spiritual, cultural and ecological elements of a community’s life. These, and similar notions, defĳinitely expand the understanding of the concept.

According to the Assembly of First Nations, indigenous knowledge consists of four interlinked components:

1. creation stories and cosmologies which explain the origins of the earth and its people;

2. codes of ritual and behavior that govern peoples’ relationships with the earth;

3. practices and seasonal patterns of resource utilization and management that have evolved as expressions of these relationships;

4. body of factual knowledge that has accumulated in connection with these practices.28

23 Kuokkanen, R. 2000. Towards an ‘Indigenous Paradigm’ from a Sami Perspective. In: The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 20(2): 411-436.

24 ACIA 2005: 64.

25 Nadasdy 1999; Casimirri 2003.

26 Berkes 2012.

27 Ibid: 8.

28 AFN, Assembly of First Nations, Environment Division. 1995. The Feasibility of Represent-ing Traditional Indigenous Knowledge in Cartographic, Pictorial or Textual Forms. Draft Final Report.

The two last components are the types of traditional knowledge which are in all likelihood most extensively documented by scientists during recent years.

Numerous studies which integrate TEK and scientifĳic knowledge report Indig-enous Peoples’ observations and knowledge regarding, for example, animal behavior and migration patterns, traditional weather forecast and changes in sea ice and weather.29 Furthermore, there are several studies which focus on indigenous classifĳication and knowledge systems.30 In the ACIA report, TEK is considered to include changes and efffects of climate warming observed by Arctic Indigenous Peoples, and their perceptions of climate impacts, such as the efffects on everyday life, land and water use, diet, and social and cultural activities.31 In the context of ACIA, TEK contains observations and, in addition, also the meanings and consequences of climate change.

McGregor writes about sources of indigenous knowledge acquisition, iden-tifying three categories: 1. traditional knowledge, which is passed on from generation to generation; 2. empirical knowledge, which is gained through observation; and 3. revealed knowledge, which is acquired through spiritual means and regarded as a gift.32 This list is certainly not complete, but useful for our discussion. Empirical knowledge is today frequently used in studies of

29 Bogoslovskaya 2003; George, J.C., Braund, S., Brower Jr., H., Nicholson, C., O’Hara, T. 2003.

Some observations on the influence of environmental conditions on the success of hunt-ing Bowhead whales offf Barrow, Alaska. In: McCartney, A.P. (ed.), Indigenous Ways to the Present. Native Whaling in the Western Arctic. Edmonton and Salt Lake City: Canadian Cir-cumpolar Institute and University of Utah Press, 255-275; Krupnik and Ray 2007; Gagnon, C. and Berteaux, D. 2009. Integrating Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Ecological Science: a Question of Scale. In: Ecology and Society 14 (2):19, online; Weatherhead et al.

2010; Gearheard, S., Pocernich, M., Stewart, R., Sanguya, J., Huntington, H. 2010. Linking Inuit knowledge and meteorological station observations to understand changing wind patterns at Clyde River, Nunavut. In: Climatic Change 100(2): 239-242; Krupnik et al. 2010.

30 Roturier, S. and Roue, M. 2009. Of forest, snow and lichen: Sami reindeer herders’ knowl-edge of winter pastures in northern Sweden. In: Forest ecology and management 258:

1960–1967; Krupnik et al. 2010. Riseth, J. Å., Tømmervik H., Helander-Renvall, E., Labba, N., Johansson, C., Malnes, E., Bjerke, J.V., Jonsson, C., Pohjola, V., Sarri, L-E., Schanche, A., Callaghan, T.V. 2011. Sámi traditional ecological knowledge as a guide to science: snow, ice and reindeer pasture facing climate change. In: Polar Record 47: 202-217; Roturier, S.

2011. Sami herders’ classifĳication system of reindeer winter pastures – A contribution to adapt forest management to reindeer herding in northern Sweden. In: Rangifer 31: 61-69;

Roturier 2011. Eira, I.M.G., Jaedicke, C., Magga, O.H., Maynard, J.G., Vikhamar-Schuler, D., Mathiesen, S.D. 2013. Traditional Sá mi snow terminology and physical snow classifĳication – Two ways of knowing. In: Cold Regions Science and Technology 85: 117-130.

31 ACIA 2005.

32 McGregor 2006.

TEK and indigenous knowledge, especially in those related to climate change.

To give an example, Climatic Change – an academic journal, published a spe-cial issue on Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge of climate and weather in 2010.

The special issue’s articles discussed the local and indigenous knowledge in diffferent parts of the world, regarding seasonal patterns of precipitation and temperature; local traditional climate indicators; observations of meteorologi-cal events; changes in wind patterns including variability, speed and direction;

the use of indigenous knowledge and meteorological forecasts in traditional farming and local seasonal calendars including changes in behavior of animals and plants.33

Documenting indigenous observations of climate change, species distribu-tions and behavior, or indigenous ways in resource conservation can work to-wards to a greater nature conservation effforts, and can as a matter of fact result in local and indigenous voices be heard. Mainstream recognition of TEK has indeed to a certain extent led to the strengthening of indigenous voices and challenged the hegemony of western science.34 However, the selection process resulting from the study design and researchers expectations has an efffect on what kind of TEK is documented and presented to a wider audience.

Within this context, one needs to be aware of the importance of documen-tation of Sámi traditional knowledge. Laila. S. Vars explains: ‘Documendocumen-tation of Sámi knowledge is the most urgent issue facing us today… Sámi traditional knowledge encompasses the beliefs, practices, innovations, arts, music, liveli-hoods, spirituality, and other forms of cultural experience and expression that belong to the Sámi’.35 Documentation is important as there is a risk that Sámi traditional knowledge fades away. In addition, it is important as part of various cultural, legal and political processes, for instance, in the context of discourses regarding land rights.36

It is wise to be aware of research conducted in indigenous societies, as much of it results in texts that will become well-known and provide students and those working with indigenous issues with facts and standpoints. Keep in

33 See: Green, D. and Raygorodetsky, G. 2010. Indigenous knowledge of a changing climate.

In: Climatic Change 100: 239-242, and references therein.

34 See: Shackerofff and Campbell 2007.

35 Vars, L. S. 2008. The Sámis Should Share Knowledge With Indigenous Peoples. Available at:

http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=3370&giella1=eng (accessed 5.7.2015).

36 Helander-Renvall, E. 2013. On Customary Law Among the Saami People. In: Bankes, N. and Koivurova, T. (eds.). The Proposed Nordic Saami Convention. National and International Dimensions of Indigenous Property Rights. Oxford and Portland, Oregon: Hart Publishing,

Im Dokument Indigenous Peoples’ Cultural Heritage: Rights, Debates and Challenges (Seite 112-138)