3 Ochratoxin A in Coffee
3.3 Risk Assessment
Coffee is one of the most common beverages and its contamination with OTA could therefore represent an important risk factor for human health. The natural occurrence of OTA in green coffee beans has been reported to be within the range of 0.2 to 360 µg/kg.
Subsequent roasting and brewing processes are known to influence the final OTA content [358]. However, considerable inconsistencies are found in the literature regarding this [70, 321, 388-392]. In 1998 Blanc et al. showed that more than 80 % of OTA originally present in green coffee beans is destroyed during soluble coffee manufacture under industrial conditions [357]. This finding was confirmed by Romani et al. [398], which also studied the elimination of OTA during the roasting process and found that both in high and low contaminated samples the OTA content could be reduced by more than 90 %. In addition and depending on the roasting conditions, van der Stegen et al. achieved OTA reductions in the range from 69 % to 96 % [393]. In a survey of 633 samples of final coffee products drawn from the markets of different European countries, the overall mean values of OTA contamination have been found to be 0.8 µg/kg for roasted and ground coffees and 1.3 µg/kg for instant coffees [394]. The EU maximum limits since April 2005 are 5 µg/kg for roasted coffee and 10 µg/kg for instant coffee [395]. By applying the brewing methods frequently used in Europe OTA is almost fully extracted. Recently, Mounjouenpou et al. found out that the OTA extraction parameters recommended by the European Union are not optimal and need to be modified [396]. Assuming a coffee consumption of four cups per day (24 g roasted and ground coffee or 8 g instant coffee), which is above the average per caput consumption level in most European countries, the daily intake of OTA amounts to 19 ng/day in the case of roasted/ground coffee and 10 ng/day in the case of instant coffee. The contribution of OTA in coffee represents less than 2 % of the PTWI set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (i. e. 100 ng/kg body weight per week, calculated for a person weighing 70 kg). In 2001 the WHO reported on the contribution of different foods to the overall OTA intake within Europe [397]. Whereas cereals and cereal products account for about 60 % and wines for about 25 % of the overall OTA intake, grape juice and coffee each contributed by about 5 – 7 % to the total amount of OTA taken up; all other foods accounted for less than 1 % of OTA ingestion.
More recently, Napolitano et al. investigated the composition changes during the processing steps “from field to the cup” in coffee from seven different geographic regions [398].
Strongly influenced by the intensity of the thermal process used and the initial OTA content in the raw material [399], the reduction performances during roasting and manufacturing of soluble coffee can vary considerably. Nevertheless, a cup of the final beverage made up of 2 g powder would contain ~ 4 ng OTA. Again, this study indicates that both roasted and ground coffee as well as soluble coffee are secondary sources of OTA in the human diet, but the overall amounts of OTA taken up from roasted and ground as well as instant coffee are minimal, even when prepared from relatively highly contaminated green beans.
4 Conclusion
Ochratoxin A is one of the most important mycotoxins regarding human health and known to be a potent nephrotoxin in all animal species tested with the exception of mature ruminants.
Furthermore, large sex and species differences in potency exist, pigs being the most sensitive animal species. OTA is nephrocarcinogenic in rodents and has been implicated as a factor both in Balkan Endemic Nephropathy and urinary tract tumours in human. However, the lesions observed in kidneys of rats treated with OTA appear to be rather different from the clinical and pathological characteristics of endemic nephropathy. Moreover, increasing evidence suggests that OTA does not bind to DNA but induces tumours by an epigenetic, thresholded mechanism. This implies that there is a dose below which no adverse health effects are expected to occur [234]. Several mechanisms underlying OTA toxicity at the cellular level have been proposed. OTA is a competitive inhibitor of phenylalanine-tRNA synthetase, thereby downregulating protein synthesis. Other mechanisms include apoptosis, interference with the cytoskeleton, lipid peroxidation and inhibition of mitochondrial respiration. In all cases OTA toxicity is most pronounced in the kidney.
OTA is produced by a number of fungal species that can infect and colonise a range of raw foods, including cereal grains, cocoa, coffee and grapes, and has been found in products manufactured thereof. Aspergillus ochraceus, A. niger and A. carbonarius have been identified as the species being most frequently responsible for OTA contamination of green and especially processed coffee beans as well as of final coffee products. OTA contamination turned out to be predominantly a problem of harvest and post-harvest processing of coffee beans and mainly emerged during sun drying and wet processing of cherry beans, storage and transportation. Considering and reviewing the four basic stages from the origin of coffee beans on the tree to their use in coffee manufacturing, Bucheli et al. concluded that OTA contamination can clearly be minimized by following good agricultural practice and a subsequent post-harvest handling consisting of appropriate techniques for drying, grading, storage and transportation of green coffee beans [348]. A number of official and validated methods are available for OTA detection in several food matrices. With the exception of two TLC methods, all of them are based on liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FD) and use immunoaffinity clean-up (IAC), thus providing precision, accuracy, specificity, sensitivity and reproducibility. They are therefore suited for food controlling and monitoring programmes. Alternative methods including LC-MS/MS, capillary
electrophoresis, ELISA test kits as well as novel immunochemical biosensors are under investigation and validation.
A variety of OTA contamination estimates have been made regarding different commodities, regions, countries, time, and certain population subgroups. Cereals account for most of the estimated OTA intake, whereas wine, coffee and beer only make up a low percentage of the total amount of ingested OTA [80]. Assuming a coffee consumption of four cups per day, which is above the average per caput consumption level in most European countries, the daily intake of OTA amounts to 19 ng/day in the case of roasted/ground coffee and and 10 ng/day in the case of instant coffee. The contribution of OTA in coffee therefore represents less than 2 % of the PTWI set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (i. e. 100 ng/kg body weight per week, calculated for a person weighing 70 kg).
In summary, both roasted and ground coffee as well as soluble coffee are secondary sources of OTA in the human diet, but the overall amounts of OTA taken up from roasted and ground as well as instant coffee are minimal, even when prepared from relatively highly contaminated green beans.
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