VORWORT
5. Anleitung zum Verständnis und zur Benutzung des Dokuments
5.2 Prozessintegrierte Maßnahmen für
4.9.3 Use of fully closed-loop installations for fabric washing (scouring) with organic solvent
... 399
4.9.3 Geschlossene Kreisläufe bei Anla-gen zur chemischen Reinigung (Lösemittelreinigung) von Flächen-gebilden ... 399 4.10 Final effluent/emission abatement
techniques
... 404
4.10 Verminderungstechniken für
7.5 Suggested topics for future R & D
projects... 465 7.5 Vorgeschlagene Themen für
zukünftige F&U-Projekte ... 465 REFERENCES ... 467 LITERATUR ... 467 GLOSSARY ... 473 GLOSSAR ... 473 8 ANNEX I TEXTILE AUXILIARIES ... 479 8 ANHANG I: TEXTILHILFSMITTEL... 479 8.1 Surfactants... 479 8.1 Tenside ... 480 8.2 Auxiliaries and finishing agents for
fibre and yarn manufacturing... 480 8.2 Hilfsmittel und Ausrüstungsmittel für die Faser- und Garnherstellung... 484 8.2.1 Spinning solution additives, spinning
additives and spinning bath additives.... 484
8.2.1 Zusatzmittel zu Spinnlösungen,
Spinnadditive und Spinnbadzusatzmit. .. 484 8.2.2 Preparation agents for primary
spinning ... 484 8.2.2 Präparationsmittel für die
Primär-spinnerei... 486 8.2.3 Preparation agents for secondary
spinning (conditioning agents and
spinning lubricants)... 486
8.2.3 Präparationsmittel für die Sekundär-spinnerei (Konditionierungsmittel und Spinnschmälzen)... 487 8.2.4 Coning oils, warping and twisting oils... 487 8.2.4 Con, Schär- und Zwirnöle... 487 8.2.5 Knitting oils... 487 8.2.5 Stricköle... 488 8.3 Sizing agents ... 488 8.3 Schlichtemittel... 491 8.4 Detergents/ wetting agents... 491 8.4 Tenside/Netzmittel... 492 8.5 Auxiliaries containing sequestering
agents... 492 8.5 Hilfsmittel, die Sequestriermittel
enthalten ... 492 8.6 Dyeing auxiliaries... 492 8.6 Färbereihilfsmittel ... 492 8.6.1 General characteristics and
environmental aspects... 492 8.6.1 Allgemeine Charakteristiken und Umweltaspekte ... 493 8.6.2 Wetting, penetrating and de-aerating
agents... 493
8.6.2 Netz-, Penetrier- und
Entlüftungs-mittel... 493 8.6.3 Dispersing agents... 493 8.6.3 Dispergiermittel ... 494 8.6.4 Levelling agents ... 494 8.6.4 Egalisiermittel... 495 8.6.5 Acid donors... 495 8.6.5 Säurespender... 495 8.6.6 Antifoaming agents ... 495 8.6.6 Entschäumer ... 495 8.6.7 Carriers ... 495 8.6.7 Färbebeschleuniger ... 496 8.7 Printing auxiliaries... 496 8.7 Druckereihilfsmittel... 496 8.7.1 Auxiliaries for dye printing
... 496
8.7.1 Hilfsmittel für das Drucken mit
Farbstoffen... 496 8.7.2 Auxiliaries for pigment printing
... 496 8.7.2 Hilfsmittel für das Drucken mit
Farbpigmenten ... 497 8.8 Finishing auxiliaries... 497 8.8 Ausrüstungshilfsmittel... 497 8.8.1 Easy-care finishing agents ... 497 8.8.1 Pflegeleicht-Ausrüstungsmittel... 499 8.8.2 Biocides ... 499 8.8.2 Biozide... 499 8.8.3 Antistatic agents ... 499 8.8.3 Antistatika... 500 8.8.4 Flame-retardants... 500 8.8.4 Flammschutzmittel ... 504 8.8.5 Hydrophobic/ Oleophobic agents... 504 8.8.5 Hydrophobier-/Oleophobiermittel ... 506 8.8.6 Softeners... 506 8.8.6 Weichmachungsmittel ... 507 8.9 Coating compounds and auxiliaries... 507 8.9 Beschichtungsmittel und Hilfsmittel ... 509
9 ANNEX II DYES AND PIGMENTS
... 509
9 ANNEX II: FARBSTOFFE UND
PIGMENTE... 479 9.1 Acid dyes... 509 9.1 Säurefarbstoffe ... 509 9.2 Basic (cationic) dyes ... 511 9.2 Basische (kationische) Farbstoffe... 511 9.3 Direct (substantive) dyes... 513 9.3 Direktfarbstoffe (Substantivfarbstoffe)... 513 9.4 Disperse dyes ... 515 9.4 Dispersionsfarbstoffe... 515 9.5 Metal-complex dyes... 516 9.5 Metalkomplexfarbstoffe ... 516 9.6 Mordant dyes (chrome dyes)... 518 9.6 Beizenfarbstoffe (Chromierungsfarbst.) ... 518 9.7 Naphthol dyes (azoic dyes developed on
the fibre)... 520 9.7 Naphtholfarbstoffe (Azofarbstoffe, die auf der Faser entwickelt werden)... 520
9.8 Reactive dyes ... 523 9.8 Reaktivfarbstoffe... 523 9.9 Sulphur dyes... 527 9.9 Schwefelfarbstoffe ... 527 9.10 Vat dyes ... 529 9.10 Küpenfarbstoffe... 529 9.11 Pigments ... 532 9.11 Farbpigmente 532 10 ANNEX III WET PROCESSES:
MACHINERY AND TECHNIQUES ... 533
10 ANHANG III: NASSPROZESSE:
MASCHINEN UND TECHNIKEN... 533 10.1 Loose fibre... 533 10.1 Flockmaterial... 533 10.1.1 Autoclave ... 533 10.1.1 Autoklav ... 533 10.2 Yarn ... 534 10.2 Garn... 534 10.2.1 Hank dyeing machines... 534 10.2.1 Strangfärbemaschinen ... 534 10.2.2 Package dyeing machines ... 535 10.2.2 Spulenfärbemaschine... 535 10.3 Fabric in rope form ... 536 10.3 Flächengebilde in Strangform ... 536 10.3.1 Batch processes ... 536 10.3.1 Diskontinuierliche Verfahren ... 536 10.3.2 Continuous processes... 540 10.3.2 Kontinuierliche Verfahren... 540 10.4 Fabric in open-width ... 541 10.4 Flächengebilde in Breitform... 541 10.4.1 Batch processes ... 541 10.4.1 Diskontinuierliche Verfahren ... 541 10.4.2 Semi-continuous and continuous
processes ... 542 10.4.2 Semi-kontinuierliche und
kontinuierliche Verfahren... 542 11 ANNEX IV: TYPICAL RECIPES
(WITH SOME ASSOCIATED EMISSION FACTOR) IN THE
TEXTILE SECTOR... 547
11 ANHANG IV: TYPISCHE REZEPTE (MIT EINIGEN DAMIT IN VERBIN-DUNG STEHENDEN EMISSIONSFAK-TOREN) FÜR DEN TEXTILSEKTOR... 547 11.1 Pretreatment ... 547 11.1 Vorbehandlung... 547 11.1.1 Cotton and cotton blends
... 547 11.1.1 Baumwolle und
Baumwoll-mischungen... 547 11.1.2 Viscose... 553 11.1.2 Viskose... 553 11.1.3 Man-made fibres (woven and knit
fabric)... 554
11.1.3 Synthesefasern (Web- und Maschen-ware)... 554 11.1.4 Wool ... 555 11.1.4 Wolle ... 555 11.2 Dyeing ... 558 11.2 Färben... 558 11.3 Printing... 559 11.3 Drucken... 559 11.4 Finishing ... 559 11.4 Ausrüsten ... 559
12 ANNEX V: TYPICAL POLLUTANTS
(AND POTENTIAL SOURCES) IN AIR EMISSIONS FROM TEXTILE
PROCESSES... 567
12 ANHANG V: TYPISCHE SCHAD-STOFFE (UND POTENZIELLE QUELLEN) IN ABGASEMISSIONEN AUS TEXTILVEREDLUNGSPROZES. ... 567 13 ANNEX VI: AUXILIARIES
CLASSIFICATION TOOLS ... 569
13 ANHANG VI: ANSÄTZE ZUR KLAS-SIFIZIERUNG VON HILFSMITTELN... 569 13.1 Tegewa scheme... 569 13.1 TEGEWA-Konzept ... 569 13.2 SCORE System ... 572 13.2 SCORE-System... 572 13.3 Dutch General Policy Scheme
... 576
13.3 Niederländische Allgemeine
Bewertungsmethodik... 576
14 ADVANCED OXIDATION
PROCESSES (FENTON REACTION) ... 583 14 Fortschrittliche Oxidationsverfahren
(Fentons Reaktion)... 583
List of tables
Table 1.1: Share of the EU-15 textile-clothing industry in the manufacturing industry (only companies with 20 employees or more)... 1 Table 1.2: Country breakdown of the EU-15 textile and clothing industry in 2000 ... 2 Table 1.3: Wool production and wool scouring production in EU Member States... 4 Table 1.4: Basic structure of the carpet manufacturing industry... 8 Table 1.5: Sector Location and number of trading entities within the EU ... 9 Table 1.6: Main charging loads from textile industry in Europe... 11 Table 2.1: Chemical composition of cotton fibre... 21 Table 2.2: Discontinuous dyeing equipment and liquor ratios ... 60 Table 2.3: Semi-continuous and continuous dyeing processes and equipment... 61 Table 2.4: Salt concentration required for reactive dyes ... 62 Table 2.5: Summary of the most common dyestuffs and dyeing techniques applied for cellulose fibres.. 66 Table 2.6: Summary of the most common dyestuffs and dyeing techniques for wool fibre ... 68 Table 2.7: Summary of the most common dyestuffs and dyeing techniques for polyamide fibres... 70 Table 2.8: Summary of the most common dyestuffs and dyeing techniques for polyester fibres ... 71 Table 2.9: Summary of the most common dyestuffs and dyeing techniques for polyacrylic fibres... 72 Table 2.10: Summary of dyestuff and dyeing techniques for polyester-cellulose blends ... 74 Table 2.11: Overview of the typical emissions generated in dyeing processes... 77 Table 2.12: Percentage of non-fixed dye that may be discharged in the effluent for the principal classes of dyes ... 78 Table 2.13: List of carcinogenic amines ... 81 Table 2.14: Ecological properties of dye formulations additives ... 82 Table 2.15: Proportion of additives and dye in powder and liquid dyes ... 82 Table 2.16: Amount of salt employed in cotton batch dyeing processes with reactive and direct dyes... 84 Table 2.17: Pollutants that are more likely to be encountered in waste water from printing processes ... 98 Table 3.1: Wool scouring process mass streams overview (fine wool)... 138 Table 3.2: Wool scouring process mass streams overview (coarse wool)... 139 Table 3.3: Wool scouring process mass streams overview (extra fine wool)... 140 Table 3.4: Overview of effluent treatment processes and associated output of COD and sludge ... 146 Table 3.5: Average organochlorine, organophosphate and synthetic pyrethroid biocide content of the
wools processed by 12 scourers ... 148 Table 3.6: Performance of effluent treatment plants in removing wool grease, COD, suspended solids and ectoparasiticides from woolscour effluent... 149 Table 3.7: Sheep treatment chemical residues in incoming greasy wool and in scouring effluent
discharged to sewer at six mills... 149 Table 3.8: Estimated process input and output in the Wooltech cleaning system... 152 Table 3.9: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from two
mills mainly finishing floc material consisting of CV, PES, PAC or CO ... 154 Table 3.10: Overview of consumption and emission levels from four mills finishing WO tops/yarn ... 155 Table 3.11: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from four mills mainly finishing yarns consisting of CO ... 156 Table 3.12: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from eight
mills mainly finishing yarns consisting of PES... 157 Table 3.13: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from
seven mills mainly finishing yarns consisting of WO/PAC/CV... 159 Table 3.14: Sequence of discharged baths from exhaust dyeing of CV yarn with reactive dyestuffs along
with values for COD, pH, conductivity, temperature and colour (spectral absorption
coefficients, SAC) ... 160 Table 3.15: Sequence of discharged baths from exhaust dyeing of PES yarn with disperse dyestuffs along
with values for COD, pH, conductivity, temperature and colour (spectral absorption
coefficients, SAC) ... 160 Table 3.16: Sequence of discharged baths from exhaust dyeing of CO yarn with vat dyestuffs along with
values for COD, pH, conductivity, temperature and colour (spectral absorption coefficients, SAC)... 161 Table 3.17: Water & energy consumption levels in loose fibre dyeing processes ... 162 Table 3.18: Water & energy consumption levels in yarn dyeing processes ... 162 Table 3.19: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from
seventeen mills mainly finishing knitted fabric consisting of cotton ... 164
Table 3.20: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from twelve mills finishing knitted fabric consisting mainly of CO with a significant printing section
...166 Table 3.21: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from mills
finishing knitted fabric consisting mainly of synthetic fibres ...168 Table 3.22: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from one
mill finishing knitted fabric mainly consisting of wool ...169 Table 3.23: Typical recipe for the continuous bleaching/washing of cotton knitted fabric ...170 Table 3.24: Consumption of chemicals and associated COD values for a continuous pretreatment process
(bleaching/washing) of cotton knit fabric ...171 Table 3.25: Data for COD, pH and L for exhausted bleaching bath and rinsing water from pre- and
full-bleaching with H2O2 of cotton knitted fabric; the specific waste water flow for the whole process including rinsing is 30 - 50 l/kg ...172 Table 3.26: Data for COD, AOX, pH and conductivity for exhausted bleaching bath and rinsing water
from combined bleaching of cotton knit fabric with NaOCl/H2O2 (L.R. = 1:15) – “ITV, 1992”;
the overall specific waste water flow (for the whole process including rinsing is 30 - 50 l/kg) ...172 Table 3.27: Typical input factors for exhaust dyeing of cotton knitted fabric with reactive dyestuffs...173 Table 3.28: Sequence of discharged baths from exhaust dyeing (light shade) of cotton knitted fabric with
reactive dyestuffs along with values for COD, pH, conductivity and colour (spectral absorption coefficients, SAC) L.R. = 1:25; specific water consumption for the whole process: 142 l/kg (including water consumed when loading the material and direct cooling after dyeing)...174 Table 3.29: Sequence of emitted baths from exhaust dyeing (dark shade) of cotton knit fabric with
reactive dyestuffs along with values for COD, pH, conductivity and colour (spectral absorption coefficients, SAC) L.R. = 1:8.2; specific water consumption for the whole process: 71 l/kg .174 Table 3.30: Sequence of discharged baths from exhaust dyeing of cotton knitted fabric with direct
dyestuffs (light shade) along with values for COD, AOX, pH, conductivity and colour (spectral absorption coefficients, SAC)...174 Table 3.31: Sequence of discharged baths from exhaust dyeing of cotton knitted fabric with sulphur
dyestuffs (dark shade) along with values for COD, AOX, pH, conductivity and colour (spectral absorption coefficients, SAC)...175 Table 3.32: Typical input and calculated output factors for exhaust dyeing of PES knitted fabric with
disperse dyestuffs...175 Table 3.33: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from mills
mainly finishing woven fabric consisting mainly of CO ...180 Table 3.34: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from mills
mainly finishing woven fabric consisting mainly of CO, with a significant printing section ..182 Table 3.35: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from six
mills finishing woven fabric consisting mainly of wool...183 Table 3.36: Concentration values and textile substrate specific emission factors for waste water from six
mills finishing woven fabric consisting mainly of synthetic fibres...185 Table 3.37: Data on emissions to air from singeing facilities in five textile finishing mills...187 Table 3.38: Possible sources of air emissions during heat-setting of grey fabrics or inefficiently washed
fabrics ...188 Table 3.39: Heat-setting: process specific emission data (measured values)...191 Table 3.40: Specific input for water, steam and chemicals in a modern continuous pretreatment line,
including desizing, scouring (padding of scouring liquor, steam treatment, washing, drying), bleaching (padding of the bleaching liquor, steaming, washing and drying ...194 Table 3.41: Air emission data from drying and fixation after printing (measurements carried out at two
finishing mills)...197 Table 3.42: Standard recipe for the finishing of cotton woven fabric with reactive non-iron compounds
...197 Table 3.43: Typical finishing recipe for crease and shrink resistance ...198 Table 3.44: Two examples for the calculation of air emission factors ...199 Table 3.45: Thermal treatments after finishing treatments: process-specific emission data (measured data)
...202 Table 3.46: Air emission factors from drying carrier-dyed textiles...203 Table 3.47: Air emission levels during drying/fixation of carrier-dyed fabrics...204 Table 3.48: Emission values from perchloroethylene-cleaned fabrics ...205 Table 3.49: Air emission data from coating (measurements carried out in five finishing mills)...206 Table 3.50: Overview of emission and consumption levels for three typical loose fibre dyehouses...208 Table 3.51: Concentrations of compounds present on raw loose fibres, which contribute to the waste
water COD load ...209
Table 3.52: Annual average pesticide content of scoured wool processed at six reference sites ... 211 Table 3.53: Overview of emission and consumption levels for four typical carpet yarn dyehouses... 212 Table 3.54: Literature values for practical energy requirements in yarn dyeing ... 213 Table 3.55: Concentration of compounds present on raw fibre, which contribute to the waste water load
... 214 Table 3.56: Concentration values and textile substrate-specific emission factors for waste water from two carpet finishing mills... 217 Table 3.57: Overview of the composition of the off gases of two typical carpet backing lines (textile
backing and foam backing). Analysis was performed by GC/MS ... 219 Table 3.58: Example of process-specific emission data (measured data) from carpet baking lines... 222 Table 3.59: Odour-intensive substances in the textile industry... 223 Table 3.60: Typical examples of odour concentrations in some textile processes (OU: odour unit) ... 224 Table 3.61: Solid and liquid wastes from textile industry... 225 Table 4.1: Form for the listing of textile auxiliaries for dyeing and printing ... 233 Table 4.2: Payback periods for heat insulation of dyeing units... 242 Table 4.3: Emission factors and corresponding organic-C concentration in the off-gas... 243 Table 4.4: COD reduction after replacement of conventional sizing agent by alternative recipe based on
polyacrylates ... 251 Table 4.5: Comparison between conventional and high-efficiency sizing agents... 252 Table 4.6: Organochlorine pesticide concentrations in the River Calder below Dewsbury Sewage
Treatment Works (UK). Data for 2 years to June 2000... 256 Table 4.7: Textile auxiliaries sold in Germany from 1997 to 2000: number, quantity and percentage of
textile auxiliaries in classes I, II, III, according to TEGEWA... 261 Table 4.8: Qualitative assessment of commercially available complexing agents... 268 Table 4.9: Effectiveness of complexing agents... 269 Table 4.10: Estimate of the economic benefits achievable with the installation of integrated dirt removal/
grease recovery loops ... 272 Table 4.11: Emissions to water at Mill N, 1982-1995: production specific values... 276 Table 4.12: Incinerator flue gas emissions at Mill N: concentrations ... 278 Table 4.13: Solid wastes at Mill N, 1982-1995: production-specific values... 278 Table 4.14: Energy savings from operating the last bowl at optimum temperature (65°C) ... 280 Table 4.15: Typical example of annual savings achievable when introducing recovery of sizing agents 287 Table 4.16: Environmental benefits achieved with an enzymatic scouring process... 291 Table 4.17: Optimisation of warp yarn scouring/bleaching: absolute and specific water consumption and
waste water discharge before and after process optimisation... 300 Table 4.18: Optimisation of warp yarn scouring/bleaching: recipe and operating conditions for the
optimised process ... 301 Table 4.19: Sulphur and sulphite concentration and load in the mixed effluent from typical processes
using sodium dithionite or sulphinic acid based reducing agents... 311 Table 4.20: Comparison of the sequence steps between a conventional and an enzymatic after-soaping
treatment (exhaust dyeing) ... 317 Table 4.21: Quantities of salt required for dyeing 1000 kg of fabric to a medium depth of shade ... 323 Table 4.22: Comparison between a conventional pad-batch process and the referenced technique applied
to mercerised 100 % cotton twill, 300 g/m, 75 % pick-up ... 329 Table 4.23: Composition and ecological information of six commercial reactive dyestuffs for wool... 335 Table 4.24: Composition and ecological information of two auxiliaries to be applied with “Lanasol Dyes”
... 336 Table 4.25: Comparative analysis of the features of chrome dyes and reactive dyes for wool dyeing .... 336 Table 4.26: Assessment of the economic aspects involved when changing over from chrome to reactive
dyes ... 339 Table 4.27: Environmental benefit associated with optimisation of batch dyeing machines ... 345 Table 4.28: Comparison of specific input data for cotton dyeing with reactive dyestuffs in a conventional
jet (L.R. 1:8 – 1:12) and in the airflow machine described above... 350 Table 4.29: Comparison of the performance for cotton dyeing with reactive dyestuffs in a conventional
machine, a "new generation machine" (typified by having charge tanks, pumped drain & fill options and continuous rinsing systems) and the referenced soft-flow machine... 352 Table 4.30: Comparison of the performance for cotton dyeing with reactive dyestuffs in a conventional
machine (L.R. 1:10 – 1:12), a "new generation machine" (L.R. 1:8 and equipped with latest time-saving devices) and the single-rope machine described above (L.R. 1:6) ... 354 Table 4.31: Volatile organic carbon emissions in pigment printing... 361 Table 4.32: Volume of conventional and optimised printing paste supply systems in rotary screen printing machines for textiles... 362
Table 4.33: Amount of printing paste required for printing various lengths of fabric at different degrees of coverage...363 Table 4.34: Calculation of savings achievable in a typical textile mill by installing the referenced printing
paste recovery system (the number of changes as well as the number of printing pastes per design may be higher in industrial practice) ...366 Table 4.35: Return on investment for different processes (textiles drying and heat setting), heat recovery
systems (air/water and air/air) and number of shifts per day ...373 Table 4.36: Overview of formaldehyde release potential of most important cross-linking agents...377 Table 4.37: Indicative emissions from loose fibre dyeing ...382 Table 4.38: Achievable specific water consumption levels for continuous washing processes during
finishing of open width woven fabric consisting of cotton or viscose and their blends with synthetic fibres...397 Table 4.39: Consumption data: aqueous system and solvent system...401 Table 4.40: Hourly cost figures: aqueous system and solvent system ...404 Table 4.41: Characteristics of waste water parameters (input and output) for six treatment plants...413 Table 4.42: Typical characteristics of the different water streams (mean values) at the treatment plant
Schiesser, D-Niederfrohna...417 Table 4.43: Measures emission values: off-gas from the thermal regeneration plant...417 Table 4.44: Elemental analysis of fresh and regenerated lignite coke ...418 Table 4.45: Capital and operating costs of the Schiesser plant; costs are calculated for the design flow of
2500 m3/d and 600000m3/yr, respectively ...418 Table 4.46: Waste water treatment techniques: Environmental performance – coarse wool...435 Table 4.47: Waste water treatment techniques: Environmental performance – fine wool ...436 Table 4.48: Unit costs ...438 Table 4.49: Costs of effluent treatment options for a scouring mill processing 3500 t/yr of coarse wool439 Table 4.50: Costs of effluent treatment options for a scouring mill processing 15000 t/yr of coarse wool
...439 Table 4.51: Composting and maturation times, capital and treatment costs, for three types of in-vessel
composting plant...442 Table 5.1: BAT for selection of incoming fibre raw material...448 Table 6.1: Enzymatic processes in textile finishing...459 Table 8.1: Overview of the loads of auxiliary agents applied on the fibre and yarn during the production
process ...485 Table 8.2: Load of preparation agents on non-texturised filament yarns (flat yarns) ...486 Table 8.3: Load of preparation agents applied on texturised filament yarns (texturised yarns) ...487 Table 8.4: Load of preparation agents applied on chemical staple fibres ...487 Table 8.5: Load of conditioning agents and lubricants applied on cotton, viscose (staple fibres) and wool
...489 Table 8.6: Amounts of sizing agents applied on different types of substrates...492 Table 8.7: Specific COD and BOD5 values for the most common sizing agents ...493 Table 8.8: Typical compounds used as detergents/ wetting agents...493 Table 8.9: Typical compounds encountered in levelling agents ...496 Table 9.1: Overview of the ecological properties of acid dyes...513 Table 9.2: Overview of the ecological properties of direct dyes ...516 Table 9.3: Overview of the ecological properties of disperse dyes ...518 Table 9.4: Overview of the ecological properties of metal complex dyes ...520 Table 9.5: Overview of the ecological properties of chrome dyes...522 Table 9.6: Overview of the ecological properties of naphthol dyes...525 Table 9.7: Typical anchor systems for cellulose fibres...526 Table 9.8: Typical anchor systems for wool and polyamide fibres ...527 Table 9.9: Overview of the ecological properties of reactive dyes...529 Table 9.10: Overview of the ecological properties of sulphur dyes...531 Table 9.11: Overview of the ecological properties of vat dyes...534
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Estimates of the amounts of greasy wool scoured during 1997 in the 15 EU Member States... 5 Figure 1.2: EU Textile Finishing Production ... 6 Figure 1.3: Worldwide production of carpets and rugs in 1999 ... 9 Figure 1.4: Carpet production and consumption in some EU Member States ... 10 Figure 1.5: European carpet and rug production in 1995 for the major producers of carpets and rugs in
Europe ... 10 Figure 1.6: Total carpet and rug production in Europe in 1995 ... 10 Figure 1.7: Auxiliaries pattern usage in a typical finishing mill ... 12 Figure 2.1: General diagram of processes in the textile industry ... 15 Figure 2.2: Simplified process sequences for manufacturing of continuous filaments (flat and texturised)
and staple fibres... 23 Figure 2.3: Conventional wool scouring arrangement ... 24 Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram showing a scour line, integrated waste handling process and on-site
effluent treatment plant ... 26 Figure 2.5: Simplified scheme of the Wooltech process ... 33 Figure 2.6: Cross-section of a tufted carpet... 38 Figure 2.7: Simplified representation of a tufting plant ... 39 Figure 2.8: A: Level loop pile; B: Cut and loop pile... 39 Figure 2.9: Manufacture of needle-felt carpet... 40 Figure 2.10: Representation of the production process for woven carpets... 40 Figure 2.11: Example of Mercerising equipment for woven fabric ... 44 Figure 2.12: Example of Mercerising equipment for knitted fabric in tubular form... 44 Figure 2.13: Representation of a conventional carbonising installation... 50 Figure 2.14: "Carbosol" system... 51 Figure 2.15: Schematic representation of discharge printing ... 88 Figure 2.16: Schematic representation of resist printing... 89 Figure 2.17: Screen printing with automatic squeegee system... 90 Figure 2.18: Representation of a flat-screen printing machine... 91 Figure 2.19: Representation of "Mechanised screen printing machine with stationary screens mounted in a
frame"... 91 Figure 2.20: Representation of the rotary-screen printing process... 92 Figure 2.21: Representation of a rotary-screen printing machine ... 93 Figure 2.22: Printing-paste feeding system for a rotary-screen printing machine... 93 Figure 2.23: Roller printing machine ... 94 Figure 2.24: More recent example of roller printing machine... 94 Figure 2.25: Schematic representation of the Millitron system... 95 Figure 2.26: Schematic representation of the TAK system... 96 Figure 2.27: Schematic representation of the Hercosett process... 103 Figure 2.28: Pre-coated tufted carpet ... 108 Figure 2.29: Pre-coating application by slop-padding... 108 Figure 2.30: Pre-coating application by doctor-blade technique... 108 Figure 2.31: Foam-coated tufted carpet ... 109 Figure 2.32: Representation of the SBR foam coating process ... 109 Figure 2.33: PU foam coating ... 110 Figure 2.34: Textile backing ... 111 Figure 2.35: Textile backing by means of the laminating glue process ... 111 Figure 2.36: Textile backing by means of the powder lamination (melting glue)... 112 Figure 2.37: Carpet manufactured with the AdBac process... 112 Figure 2.38: Representation of the heavy coating process ... 113 Figure 2.39: Solvent washing: representation of the solvent circuit ... 114 Figure 2.40: Solvent washing: representation of the air circuit in a open-loop washing machine ... 115 Figure 2.41: Solvent washing: representation of the air circuit in a closed-loop washing machine... 115 Figure 2.42: Typical process sequence for the finishing of knitted fabric mainly consisting of cotton ... 122 Figure 2.43: Typical process sequence for the finishing of knitted fabric consisting mainly of man-made
fibres... 123 Figure 2.44: Typical process sequence for the finishing of woven fabric mainly consisting of cotton.... 124 Figure 2.45: Typical process sequence for the finishing of woven fabric mainly consisting of wool... 125 Figure 2.46: General process flow diagram for wool and wool-blend carpet yarn production ... 126 Figure 2.47: Schematic layout of a hank-scouring machine ... 130 Figure 2.48: Schematic diagram of a "Package to Package" yarn scouring installation ... 131
Figure 3.1: Net specific water consumption plotted against production volume...141 Figure 3.2: Relationship between the detergent feed rate and the rate of discharge of effluent to treatment
...143 Figure 3.3: Energy and water consumption in 11 UK scouring mills...144 Figure 3.4: Energy consumption plotted against water consumption for 11 UK scouring mills ...144 Figure 3.5: Water consumption against throughput for 11 UK scouring mills...144 Figure 3.6: Diagram showing the ranges of inputs to and outputs from the scouring processes and effluent treatment plants (on- and off-site) at the mills surveyed...151 Figure 3.7: Example of composition of the COD load for a mill finishing knitted fabric consisting mainly of polyamide ...167 Figure 3.8: Composition of the COD load of a mill finishing woven fabric consisting mainly of cotton;
semi-continuous and continuous dyeing is carried out with sulphur, vat and reactive dyestuffs ...177 Figure 3.9: Analysis of thermal and electric energy consumption for the finishing of viscose fabric...178 Figure 3.10: Analysis of thermal and electric energy consumption for the finishing of viscose/PES fabric
...179 Figure 3.11: Composition of the COD load of a mill finishing woven fabric consisting of polyamide
mainly ...184 Figure 3.12: Typical continuous process for pretreatment of cellulosic fibres, including desizing (first two
compartments), scouring (padding of scouring liquor, steam treatment, washing, drying), bleaching (padding of the bleaching liquor, steaming, washing and drying)...193 Figure 3.13: Waste water: fibre partition coefficients for OC, OP and SP pesticides in wet processing..215 Figure 3.14: Diagram showing the ranges of inputs to and indicative output from wool and wool-blend
carpet fibre wet processing ...216 Figure 4.1: Scheme for annual input/output overview at site level...232 Figure 4.2: Example of automated systems for dispensing chemicals...236 Figure 4.3: Bioelimination curves in the modified Zahn-Wellens Test (EN 29888) of seven combinations
of different sizing agents which are bioeliminated to more than 80 % after 14 days ...251 Figure 4.4: Residues on Australian fleece wool 1996 to 1999 ...259 Figure 4.5: Average pesticide residues in New Zealand greasy wool 1994 to 2000...260 Figure 4.6: Chemical structure of some N- or P- containing complexing agents ...267 Figure 4.7: Chemical structure of some N- and P-free complexing agents ...268 Figure 4.8: Schematic diagram of the effluent and waste management system at Mill N ...276 Figure 4.9: Recovery of sizing agents by ultrafiltration ...284 Figure 4.10: Representative example of mass balance for sizing agents and water with and without
recovery ...285 Figure 4.11: Production of the peroxide radical ion by scavenging hydroxyl radicals (OH*) using
hydrogen peroxide ...297 Figure 4.12: Representation of the caustic soda recovery process by evaporation followed by lye
purification...298 Figure 4.13: Comparison between the composition of conventional and new liquid formulations of liquid
disperse dyes, before and after biological treatment (the (%) in the y axis indicates the
percentage of dispersing agents related to the overall formulation) ...307 Figure 4.14: Comparison of the bioelimination rates of conventional and modified dispersing agents, both based on condensation products of naphthalenesulphonic acid with formaldehyde ...307 Figure 4.15: Representation of a U-shaft (A) and nip (B) dye liquor application systems...315 Figure 4.16: Dosing curve for ready-made alkali solution ...319 Figure 4.17: Two examples of polyfunctional dyestuffs ...321 Figure 4.18: Basic chemicals consumption per 10 million metres with dry-steam, batch, pad-dry-thermofix and the reference technique ...327 Figure 4.19: Fabric temperature and humidity during the dyeing process using the referenced technique
...328 Figure 4.20: Structure of a typical bifunctional reactive dyestuff for wool of the bromo-acrylamide type
...335 Figure 4.21: Dyeing curve for the application of reactive dyestuffs for wool exhaust dyeing ...337 Figure 4.22: Dyeing of loose wool fibre and combed tops: comparison between the dyeing curve for the
conventional process (whole curve) and the optimised process (Lanaset TOP process) (dotted part of the curve)...341 Figure 4.23: Supraflor Carpet Winch ...347 Figure 4.24: Illustration of an airflow dyeing machine with indication of air circulation and injection of
the bath ...349 Figure 4.25: Illustration of the rinsing step in an airflow dyeing machine with indication of the open valve to achieve continuous rinsing...349