THE PREHISTORY OF EGYPT

Around 5000 BC, one of the most advanced and powerful civilizations arose on the banks of the Nile River called Egypt (www.123HelpMe.com). The name Egypt means “Two Lands”, reflecting the two separate kingdoms of Upper and Lower prehistoric Egypt – the Delta region in the north and a long length of sandstone and limestone in the south. In 3000 BC, a single ruler, Menes, unified the entire land and set the stage for an impressive civilization that lasted 3000 years. He began with the construction of basins to contain the flood water, digging canals and irrigation ditches to reclaim the marshy land.

The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stableKingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age. Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, in the Ramesside period, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers in this late period. After Alexander the Great’s death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, established himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Ptolemaic Dynasty ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province (Clayton, 1994).

Until the conversion to Christianity, Egyptian polytheistic religion centred on the afterlife. Pharaohs and rich Egyptians built elaborate tombs in caves or in pyramids, decorated with elaborate art on the interior and containing jewellery and objects that would be needed in the afterlife. The walls of the pyramids were decorated with elaborate stylised frescos, in which noble persons were shown as larger than slaves, and subjects were drawn in profile. In other periods, all subjects were shown in frontal view only. The king or noble person had his or her body wrapped in linen, and enclosed in an elaborate carved coffin as a mummy.

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fuelled social development and culture. The administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organisation of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics; a practical and effective system of medicine; irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques; the first known ships; Egyptian faience and glass technology; new forms of literature; and the earliest known peace treaty (Clayton, 1994). Motivating and organising these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a Pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs (James, 2005; Manuelian, 1998).

Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travellers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy (James, 2005). The unique history of ancient Egypt and visible monuments to that history helped Egyptians to preserve a distinct national consciousness, and to remain a separate entity during the years of Arab, Mameluke and Ottoman conquest. Ancient Egypt boasted considerable achievements in art, medicine, astronomy and literature, and was the hub of civilization in much of the Near East and North Africa.

6.3 WATER RESOURCES IN ANCIENT EGYPT 6.3.1 General

With the onset of the last great ice age about 30,000 years ago huge glaciers formed on the high African mountains of Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. When the great global meltdown began about 12,000 years ago these huge glaciers sent massive volumes of water to the north. The gigantic discharges flowed out of Lake Victoria and down the Blue and White Nile valley basins. Catastrophic floods filled the lower Egyptian valley, washing away all villages and burying their shattered remnants in sediment, thus breaking the continuity of human life in Egypt. Archaeologists today call this the“Wild Nile”. Then, as the glacial melting slowed, the valley became suitable for human settlement once again (1).

Ancient Egypt was an agricultural estate and mainly relied on the flooding of the Nile for fertile soil.

Inundation or flooding is the yearly gradual overflow of the Nile water. Each year, in June and extending to the end of November, land would be covered with water which would slowly drain and flow back leaving behind highly fertile soil. This annual cycle of flooding and depositing of silt created a new layer of topsoil each year. This topsoil was rich in organic nutrients and basic elements for plants such as phosphorus and nitrogen. Beside this, when the water receded in October, it left behind pools of water in depressed areas which was stored for some time until the soil could absorb more water therefore acting as a reservoir. On the other hand, the mud left by the flooding would be the best medium for planting their crops.

6.3.2 The Nile

The fertility of the Nile River is well known and hardly requires mentioning here. This river helped sustain Egyptian civilization for three millennia. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Egypt is the gift of the Nile, meaning that it flourished on the top soil that was formed from silt brought by the recurrent floods of the Nile. He states:

. . . . the water begins to rise at the summer solstice, continues to do so for a hundred days, and then falls again at the end of that period, so that it remains low throughout the winter until the summer solstice comes round again in the following year.

The floodwaters of the Nile come as a result of the rainy season in Ethiopia, which erodes the silt of the Ethiopian highlands, and carries it towards Egypt along the Blue Nile and other tributaries. The River Nile in Egypt receives 90% of its water during a 100-day flood period every year. No appreciable amount of water comes to Egypt via the White Nile, which starts from Central Africa. Indeed, Egypt is the gift of the Nile, and it was founded and developed around that river, for there is no rain in Egypt. However, each year flooding caused disasters to Egyptians presented in the risk of their villages being damaged and their crops destroyed.

So, Egyptians suffered many losses due to this yearly flooding. As an effect of that, the first form of government appeared when the Egyptians organised their efforts under one leadership to avoid these

disasters and the yearly flooding following the concept of authority (decision making). As time passed, the ruler (pharaoh) became more important with more power and influence on the Egyptians. The government dealt with many problems that Egyptians were looking forward to controlling like the irrigation systems, storage of food surplus, the harvest cycle and many other tasks. But these acts were not carried out for free and the government would not stand without having a resource or income so they had to follow the tax method. Over time this form of government started to become more and more complex (2). As the state grew and more complex religious and political systems started to emerge, the need for a system to record events was growing too. The papyrus paper was found to satisfy that need. Ancient Egyptians used a phonetic-pictograph writing called hieroglyphics by the Ancient Greeks. This system evolved from portrayal of pictures of objects to using stylised representation of objects to represent sound combinations and compose words, to a phonetic alphabet much like our own.

In general, all the scientific, political and agricultural advancements were a direct result of the existence of that river.

6.3.3 Water resources management in Ancient Egypt

Egypt is (and was) one of the most arid areas in the world. The Ancient Egyptians managed their limited water resources efficiently, and became the best dry-weather agrarians in the world. Ancient Egypt was renowned worldwide for its dry-weather irrigation and farming techniques. In 3000 BC, Menes, began with the construction of basins to contain the flood water, digging canals and irrigation ditches to reclaim the marshy land. From these earliest of times, so important was the cutting of a dam that the event was heralded by a royal ceremony. King Menes is credited with diverting the course of the Nile to build the city of Memphis on the site where the great river had run. By 2500 BC, an extensive system of dikes, canals and sluices had been developed. It remained in use until the Roman occupation, circa 30 BC−641 AD. Diodorus spoke of the efficient Egyptian farming system, he wrote:

. . . being from their infancy brought up to agricultural pursuits, they far excelled the husband-men of other countries, and had become acquainted with the capabilities of the land, the mode of irrigation, the exact season for sowing and reaping, as well as all the most useful secrets connected with the harvest, which they had derived from their ancestors, and had improved by their own experience.

Several entities were formed along the Nile Valley to manage the gushing floodwaters by observing, recording, and regulating the water flow to the whole Nile Valley. As a consequence, a highly organised communal irrigation system was developed and used since time immemorial. The limited available water resources in Ancient Egypt were managed most efficiently by utilising organised methods of water conservation and diversion. According to Strabo, the Egyptian communal irrigation system was so admirably managed:

. . . that art contrived sometimes to supply what nature denied, and, by means of canals and embankments, there was little difference in the quantity of land irrigated, whether the flood was deficient or abundant.

6.3.3.1 Nilometers

The annual flooding of the Nile had a big impact on Egyptian agriculture, so taxes were exacted based on flood levels. In the beginning, a portable tool, called a Nilometer, was placed vertically into the Nile to measure the flood levels. It was probably a long reed stick on which different levels were marked. To assess taxes fairly, the Ptolemaic rulers built temples along the Nile and installed Nilometers in them.

The Nilometer uncovered on Philae Island is a staircase with reliefs of Nilometers with arms carved on its internal walls, along with the timing and duration of the flood. During the Roman period in Egypt,

the Roman rulers showed interest in the monuments built along the Nile with Nilometers, but did not construct any new buildings themselves.

Until the time of the Emperor Constantine, a portable Nilometer was kept in the temple of the god Serapis.

The ancient Egyptians believed that they were in debt to Serapis for bringing them the annual Nile flood.

After every measurement that showed a rise in the Nile waters, they would return the portable Nilometer to the temple of Serapis. This became a ritual. The portable Nilometer was called“the arm, or branch, of the Nile”.

When Constantine ordered the Nilometer to be placed in the Church of Alexandria, chaos ensued in Egypt. The people thought Serapis would be angry and not allow the Nile to rise that year. However, the Nile did rise. The Emperor Julian the Apostate later ordered the Nilometer be returned to the temple of Serapis. It remained there until the time of The Emperor Theodosius the First, who ordered the entire temple to be destroyed.

Nilometers were built in various places along the river. They had three different formats: a slab or pillar, a well or a series of steps (Figure 6.2). But all three were calibrated using the same unit of measurement, the cubit (slightly shorter than 5 cm). These Nilometers’readings were taken by priests and then studied by Egyptian architects and astronomers.

The most important Nilometers, built and studied, were located at Elephantine Island, Philae Island, and at Edfu between Luxor and Aswan. Knowing that the Nile flooded every year, a yearly calendar was made based on the flooding. This calendar consisted of twelve months and divided each one into thirty days and it was the most accurate calendar of its time.

Figure 6.2 Different types of Nilometers

The elevations at the Nilometers throughout Egypt were all tied to a single common datum. Regulating the flow amounts and duration was controlled by knowledgeable officials, using sluice gate(s) to control the flow of water to a determined height and duration. Diodorus affirms:

‘. . . at flood-time it might not form stagnant pools over the land to its detriment, but that the flood-water might be let upon the countryside, in a gentle flow as it might be needed, through gates which they[Egyptians] had built’ The water of the inundation was managed differently in various districts. This depended on many factors, such as the relative heights/elevations of the adjoining lands, and what the crops they happened to be cultivating at the time, etc.

6.3.3.2 Water projects

The Ancient Egyptian waterworks and land reclamation projects were huge, even by our present-day standards of projects that use heavy equipment. Below are a few examples.

A major waterway diversion project was carried out over 4000 years ago. The project began at present-day Asyut, where they dug a long canal called Bahr Yousuf to bring water from the Nile to the present-day Fayoum, located about 65 miles (100 km) southwest of Cairo for irrigation (Figure 6.3). The Fayoum Oasis lies below sea level, and contains Lake Qarun.

The lake was originally used as a catchment basin for the Nile overflow, and once filled the entire region. This water carried with it, and deposited, the fertile Nile silt on the bottom of the lakebed. This ancient major project caused the diversion of millions of gallons of Nile water that was wasted at the deserts around the Fayoum region.

The flow of water into the lake was reduced. As a result, about 80% of the original lake area was reclaimed and the rich soil was cultivated. A series of waterwheels were used to raise water to the banks along this branch of the Nile. Additionally, more water was available along the Nile Valley north of Asyut, increasing arable lands.

There is archaeological evidence of major public projects in Kush, which were built in order to establish a permanent presence in the area during the Middle Kingdom. King Senwasret III (1878–1844 BC) established (modern-day) Semna. The area above the Third Cataract was fertile and supported a large population. During the Middle Kingdom, an artificial dam blocked the channel. A portion of this dam is still visible, today, at Semna East. The dam construction raised the level of the Nile for hundreds of miles to the south, enabling trading expeditions to navigate far into the interior of Africa. There are Figure 6.3 Fayoum Project

about 25 inscriptions on the rocks below the channel fortresses of Semna East and Semna West. They represent Nile flood levels recorded during the Middle Kingdom, and all of them show a level about 25 ft (8m) higher than the maximum water levels of today.

6.4 AGRICULTURE 6.4.1 Farming

A combination of favourable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.

Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned (Manuelian,1998). Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognised three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting) (Figure 6.4). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river’s banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers ploughed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops (Nicholson, 2000). From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

Figure 6.4 The three farming cycles

The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibres of their stems. These fibres were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine (Nicholson, 2000).

6.4.2 Irrigation systems

The Egyptians depended on the annual flooding of the Nile to cover their fields with black silt and to irrigate their crops. They measured the flood to determine their taxes. To make sure their crops had enough water, the ancient Egyptians came up with ways to deal with the seasonal flooding of the Nile, which lasted about six months. During this time the farmlands were under water, so they developed an elaborate irrigation system to distribute the waters of the Nile to places far from the banks of the Nile for irrigation to convert their arid land into the bread basket of the Near East.

They dug irrigation canals and built catch-basins, created by building small dykes, to bring water to lands not reached by the flooding. Water was also carried in pails that hung from a yoke carried across the back.

Raising water from the level of the Nile to the surface of the farmlands was a very important activity in Egypt.

An invention called the tanbour (Figure 6.5) made this task easier. The well-known scholar, Archimedes, invented the tanbour during his stay in Alexandria and named it the“Archimedes screw”. It consists of a

An invention called the tanbour (Figure 6.5) made this task easier. The well-known scholar, Archimedes, invented the tanbour during his stay in Alexandria and named it the“Archimedes screw”. It consists of a