While multilateralism had been the norm in a globalised world for the past forty years, the current context of international relations and a fortiori of international cultural relations is changing, making more challenging for the EU to enhance its cultural policy on the world stage. Following the 2009 economic crisis, the negative effects of globalisation are growingly singled out by governments and citizens. At the same time big powers, especially the US, are losing appeal while others (China and Russia for instance) are taking a stronger position on the diplomatic scene. The EU which has flourished in multilateralism as a model for economic and (to a certain extent) political integration now finds a more difficult context to advance its international role, including cultural activities.
Another characteristic of the contemporary international order is the growing power of technological companies, not only in economic terms but also impacting diplomatic and people relationships. Digital media might as well be a tool for the EU to engage with its citizens and globally as it might hurt the very European project, preventing the EU to advance with a united position regarding culture in its international relations. The digital shift brings about new social behaviours and therefore reshuffles traditional mechanisms of cultural diplomacy and international cultural relations. With the rapid global dissemination of information, people-to-people contacts, networks, non-state actors and international digital companies have become increasingly influential. In such a context, culture plays an important role in the global communication of ideas, cultural products, as well as in their related influence.40 Although creating new possibilities for engagement within and between societies, digital means of information and communication (especially social media) also have drawbacks, notably in terms of distortion, misrepresentation and unaccountability, which can transform them into a political weapon for ideologically driven, malign activities41 as demonstrated in the recent Facebook–Cambridge Analytica personal data scandal.
Cultural intervention seems all the more relevant in the backdrop of growing populist nationalism as well as distrust in European institutions42 in a number of EU Member States combined with the diffusion of fake news and disinformation on the web, which scrutinize and question EU fundamental values. In the face of current political, economic, environmental challenges threatening the social fabric CCS are perceived as a source of resilience with cultural dialogue and exchanges playing a role in the diplomatic conversation.43 Cultural productions help create an appropriate environment for communicating European core values – democracy, human rights and freedom of expression – to European citizens and a worldwide audience. Participatory forms of creation involving citizens from various backgrounds and origins empower their critical thinking and stimulate the democratic debate44 (see also sections 2.4 and 2.5). This role has been enshrined in the European Parliament’s resolution of 19 January 2016 on the role of intercultural dialogue, cultural diversity and education in promoting the EU’s
40 KEA (2016) European Cultural Institutes Abroad, Research for the CULT Committee.
41 Higgott R., Proud V. (2017) Populist-Nationalism and Foreign Policy - Cultural Diplomacy, International Interaction and Resilience, ifa Edition Culture and Foreign Policy, Stuttgart.
42 The European Parliament’s Spring Eurobarometer observed an increase in the feeling of uncertainty in 19 European Member states (EU 27) with 27% of Europeans thinking that the EU is ‘neither a good thing nor a bad thing’. However, it showed continued strong support for the European Union with 68% of respondents across the EU27 believing that their countries have benefited from being part of the EU. This view is shared by a majority of people in all Member States except for Italy. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/at-your-service/files/be-heard/eurobarometer/2019/parlemeter-2019/executive-summary/en-parlemeter-2019-executive-summary.pdf
43 Higgott R., Proud V. (2017) op.cit.
44 European Commission, Communication A New European Agenda for Culture, COM(2018) 267 final, Brussels, 22.05.2018.
fundamental values, stating that ‘intercultural dialogue is a tool for inclusive democratic participation and empowerment of citizens, in particular in relation to common goods and public spaces.45
Although the EU has not yet reached the point of an integrated European cultural foreign policy, international cultural relations have been structuring at EU level since the beginning of the 2000s.
The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) stipulates in its Article 167 Paragraph 3 that the Union and its Member States shall foster cooperation with third countries and the competent international organisations in the sphere of culture. Paragraph 4 of the same Article provides that the Union shall take cultural aspects into account in its action under other provisions of the Treaties, in particular the respect and promotion of the diversity of its cultures. The past decade has seen consecutive steps made by European institutions, among which the European Parliament, Commission and European Council, towards an agenda for culture in the Union’s foreign policy. The 2007 Communication on a European Agenda for Culture in a Globalizing World46 followed by the Council Conclusions on a European Agenda for Culture47 made culture a vital element of the EU's international relations and placed the international element among the priorities of the Agenda for Culture. In 2011, the European Parliament adopted a Resolution on the cultural dimensions of the EU's external actions,48 calling for the development of a common EU strategy on culture in EU external relations and allocated a EUR 500 000 budget for the European Commission to launch a "preparatory action' in this field. The EU Preparatory Action report on the role of culture in the EU’s external relations published in 2014 stressed the growing salience of mutual learning and mutual sharing in what it calls ‘global cultural citizenship’.49 In this respect, it recognised the increasing role of a range of civil society, private sector actors and cultural relations organisations ‘for enhancing European influence and attraction’ in the world. While cultural diplomacy primarily involves governmental bodies and agencies, the approach adopted by the report considers that cultural relations unfold beyond the State and flourish among people and societies.50 This particularly matters for the European Union as an international power and entity, constituted of a diversity of cultural expressions and heritage across its Member States.
In 2016 the European Commission and the European External Action Service (EEAS) released a Joint communication ‘Towards an EU strategy for international cultural relations’, adopted by the European Council on May 23, 2017. The strategy is aimed at promoting diversity through intercultural interaction with a bottom-up approach respectful of the independence of the cultural sector. 51 Thereafter, the position of CCS as part of European external relations has been strengthened, as underpinned in the European Parliament 2017 resolution on ‘Towards an EU strategy for international cultural relations’,52
45 European Parliament resolution of 19 January 2016 on the role of intercultural dialogue, cultural diversity and education in promoting EU fundamental values (2015/2139(INI)) http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P8-TA-2016-0005+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN
46 European Commission, Communication on from the European Commission on a European agenda for culture in a globalizing world, COM/2007/0242 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52007DC0242,
47 Council Resolution of 16 November 2007 on a European Agenda for Culture (OJ C 287, 29.11.2007).
48 European Parliament resolution of 12 May 2011 on the cultural dimensions of the EU’sexternal actions (2010/2161(INI)).
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P7-TA-2011-0239+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN
49 Isar, Yudhishthir Raj et al. (2014) Preparatory Action: ‘Culture in EU External Relations.’ Engaging the World: Towards Global Cultural Citizenship. Brussels: European Commission.
50 Ibidem.
51 European Commission, JOINT COMMUNICATION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL Towards an EU strategy for international cultural relations JOIN/2016/029 final https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=JOIN%3A2016%3A29%3AFIN
52 European Parliament resolution of 5 July 2017 on Towards an EU strategy for international cultural relations (2016/2240(INI)) http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2017-0303_EN.html?redirect
in the 2018 New European Agenda for Culture53 and in the Council’s conclusions on an ‘EU strategic approach to international cultural relations and a framework for action’.54 All policy documents highlight the capacity of European CCS to build bridges among societies through the exchange of ideas and cultural experiences, thereby fostering intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding. CCS facilitate the ‘act of communication defined as public diplomacy which takes both the government-to-people and government-to-people-to-government-to-people form’.55 As vehicles for strengthening common values, CCS are also vectors of peace and reconciliation, especially in post-conflict regions within the EU (e.g. in Northern Ireland), as well as in its neighbourhood (e.g. in the Western Balkans or the MENA region). Drawing from its own history of reconciliation and prosperity through cohesion, the European Union has the experience required to advance culture as a soft power and peace-building tool in societies marked by conflict.
In such approach, European external actions need to be strongly based on equal partnerships with local organisations and a sense of common purpose to work to mutual advantage56 therefore avoiding resistance or backlash towards its international activities.57
53 European Commission, Communication A New European Agenda for Culture, COM(2018) 267 https://ec.europa.eu/culture/sites/culture/files/commission_communication_-_a_new_european_agenda_for_culture_2018.pdf
54 Council conclusions on an EU strategic approach to international cultural relations and a framework for action, Brussels, 21 March 2019.
https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-7749-2019-INIT/en/pdf
55 European Parliament, 2016, ‘Report on a coherent EU policy for cultural and creative industries’
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A8-2016-0357+0+DOC+PDF
56 de Vries, G. (2019) Cultural Freedom in European Foreign Policy, ifa Edition Culture and Foreign Policy, Stuttgart.