The 19th century brought a first extension of the term 'communication' as a global term due to the expansion of European power in other continents. Fostered by the intercontinental exchange of informations the terminology of communication reflects international transfer of informations. Influenced by the international communication a first separation between the European countries and the depending countries came up. After their independence these countries established a national constitution and in most cases they implied statements regarding communication. Western civilization had two major variants in Europe and North America since the settlement process in North America was finished in the 19th century.
European Western civilization has a common history, similar languages, exchanging cultural assets, and a common dominant religion separated into different forms. Until the 19th century the general communicative situation since the Renaissance didn’t change in terms of quality, but quantity with the increase of book and journal productions. Readership expanded in the 19th century. Around 1900 most of the people of Western Europe were literate. Literacy was the most common medium for communication in the Western World after speech. In opposition to the other areas of the world the oral tradition of communication has nearly no meaning in terms of administration or law. Instead of this we find a strong literary tradition of communication, while oral tradition as method of communication and documentation was only used in remove local areas. The preference of literacy is one of the reasons why only in the western culture the praxis of rhetorical communication could develop so highly.
The industrialisation during the 19th century changed the European societies. Industrialisation on the British island started after 1830. In comparison to Britain industrialisation in other regions of Europe started slowly. Belgium began to industrialise in 1806. Literary documents and books were the most important medium for keeping records. The main way to save a document and to send it to a receiver in far distance was using a literary medium. In the late 19th century we find the development of radio and other technologies so that oral far distance-communication improved. Until the 19th century in the Western world only a few new technical discoveries influenced the communicative conditions. Photography is a very late form of visual communication. In 1826 in France the first photography by Joseph Nicephore was done. De facto the conditions of communication changed in the 19th century with new technical media, a mass distribution of news through printing media, and new technical developments such as radio, photography, and other tools. These events had also an impact on the contemporary meanings and terminology of communication.
Around 1900 rhetoric became the study of effective writing. Its public appearance was reduced to an academic field without any new approaches towards the subject. This phenomenon is called ´decadence of rhetoric´ and it is known in the research of rhetoric since the ancient times as a topos. In the 19th century emphasis shifted to written products to the modes of discourse in newspapers and other print products of the mass media. Public discourse were affected by changes. In the English speaking world the composition class was a pedagogical space as a new discipline for rhetoric in schools.419 In Germany during the 19th century rhetoric as an academic discipline has less and less influence. The upcoming of new academic disciplines and political democracy reduced the needs for rhetoric. Rhetoric had
419 Foundations of Literary Theory. The Nineteenth Century. Ed. by John Valdimir Price. London: Routledge 1995. Pp. 45-51.
disappeared from the German curriculum at the beginning of the 19th century.420 German philosophy and linguistic philosophy in the 19th and early 20th century is represented by philosophers like Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche. So it is no wonder that the German philosopher Nietzsche was a highly qualified philologist before becoming a poet and author criticizing its contemporary time. Nietzsche showed the influence of metaphors in literature and language. Nietzsche wrote in Beyond Good and Evil and Gay Science aphorisms and sentences about oratory. Nietzsche's manuscripts Darstellung der antiken Rhetorik are lecture notes of his 1872/73 course on ancient rhetoric held at the University of Basel. This text is an important text in the history of modern theories of rhetoric connecting the humanist origin with contemporary thoughts of modernity.421 Nietzsche critizised the study of rhetoric as a way to influence social thought by scientific rationality. Nietzsche as a rhetorician denounces the German incapability to collaborate around the familiar to compose inspired variations on 'commonplace themes'. In his essay The Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life Nietzsche criticized 19th-century scholarship focusing on empiricism of the 19th-century.
Nietzsche considered the basic development of 19th-century European society as a society with hyper-historical consciousness preventing European civilization from developing a cultural style of its own. Nietzsche considered the ancient culture of persuasion as part of an egalitarian society not experiencing the need of historical accuracy.422Nietzsche's interest was to re-establish contemporary scholarship as a part in a broad public conversational communication.423 In his essay The Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life Nietzsche criticizes 19th-century scholarship as back stepping ‘historicism’ in opposition to a 'critical' history. Nietzsche suggests the need for a broadening of the historiographical base requiring an informing sensibility of need and urgency. Historicism would need to recognize its critical media as described in his later Genealogy of Morals.
In the encyclopedic dictionary of the German language Deutsches Wörterbuch edited by Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm in 16 volumes in Leipzig between 1854 and 1960 the term Communication is used for conversation and other modes of information exchange. While the 19th century Romantic poets attempted to preserve the virtues of figurative rhetorical discourse, logic was considered the higher asset for rational Enlightenment in the beginning of the 19th century. In France Historie de l' Eloquence Latine written by Adolphe Berger was publicised in the year 1872. The Greek-English Lexicon gives in 1843 a definition of rhetoric in this way:
The modern word rhetoric derives from the ancient Greek phrase rhêtorikê (tekhnê), usually translated as ´the rhetorical art´ or ´the art of rhetoric.´ The noun form rhêtoreia is usually translated as ´oratory´, or ´public speaking´ and first
420 Cf. Rügg, Walter. "Rhetoric and Anti-Rhetoric in the Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Human Science in Germany.” In: The Recovery of Rhetoric. Persuasive Discourse and Disciplinarity in the Human Sciences. Ed.
by Richard H. Roberts. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press 1993. Pp. 87-110.
421 Man, Paul de. Allegories of Reading Figural Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust. New Haven: Yale University Press 1979. Pp. 122-126.
Nietzsche oder "Die Sprache ist Rhetorik .” Ed. by Josef Kopperschmidt and Helmut Schanze. München: Fink 1994. Pp. 92.
422 Cf. Kaufman, Walter. Nietzsche's Attitude Toward Socrates. In: Nietzsche. Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. 4th ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1974. Pp. 391-411.
Nietzsche: A Critical Reader. Ed. by Peter Sedgwick. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell 1995. Pp. 123-43.
423 Cf. Whitson, Steve and John Pulakos. "Nietzsche and the Aesthetics of Rhetoric.” In: Quarterly Journal of Speech. 79 (1993). Pp. 131-45.
Hikins, James W. "Nietzsche, Eristic, and the Rhetoric of the Possible: A Commentary on the Whitson and Poulakos 'Aesthetic View' of Rhetoric." In: Quarterly Journal of Speech. 81 (1995), 353-77.
Cherwitz, Richard A. and Thomas Darwin. "Why the 'Epistemic' in Epistemic Rhetoric? The Paradox of Rhetoric as Performance." In: Text and Performance Quarterly. 15 (1996). Pp. 189-205.
appears in the late fifth and early fourth centuries B.C. in the texts of Plato, Isocrates, and Aristotle. These words are based on the root rhêt-, which designates something that is stated or specified, especially as part of an agreement or covenant. The related word rhêtra is of crucial importance in the early history of democratic government, where is designates the laws that constitute the social contract between a people and its political leader: of the laws of Lycurgus, which assumed the character of a compact between the Law-giver and the people.424
During the 19th-century in Europe ideas about the relation of language and persuasion to mental faculties like will, imagination, or understanding were considered influential for rhetorical production. The civil and cultural status of rhetoric as an educational tool was secured in the 19th century. Rhetoric was still seen as a factor in maintaining social and political order. Both oratory and composition were considered parts of rhetoric in education.
Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History have the subject ‘history’ where Hegel figures out in § 3 What the Historian Puts Into the Mouths of Orators is an Uncorrupted Transcript of Their Intellectual and Moral Habitudes that the historical speech becomes in the mouth of orators an authentical expression of their minds. Hegel also mentions the union between the
‘objective idea’ and the ‘subjective personality’.425 The criticism of Enlightenment also had its output in terms of rhetorical critical studies of religious texts and the revival of classical rhetoric for biblical scholars. In the early 1800's philosophers like Schleiermacher developed the study of hermeneutics, the art of interpretation, in order to achieve the full interpretation and meaning of texts. The Hegelian idea of evolution has influenced German criticism and indirectly Biblical criticism. Ferdinand Christian Baur wrote on historical criticism:
If historical-criticism has at all the task to search out everything as precisely as possible with regard to writings whose origin and character it investigates, it cannot be satisfied with merely their outward appearance, but must attempt also to penetrate their inner nature. It must inquire not merely about the circumstances of the time in general, but in particular about the writer's position with regard to these things, the interests and motives, the leading ideas of his literary activity. The greater the conceptual significance of a literary product, the more it should be assumed that it is based on an idea that determines the whole, and that the deeper consciousness of the time to which it belongs is reflected in it. Even with regard to the New Testament writings, therefore, historical criticism would not completely fulfill its task if it did not endeavor to investigate more precisely the conceptual character which they themselves bear, the concerns of the time under whose influence they originated, the direction they pursue, the basic perspective to which the particular subordinates itself — if it did not make any attempt at all to penetrate as far as possible their inner nature, and likewise to peer into the creative conception of the thoughts in the mind of the writer from which these writings went forth.426
Critical studies in theological writings were used to have scientific access to the writings. The philological-critical method known as form criticism dates back to the work of Hermann
424 Liddlell, Henry George; Scott, John. Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Project. [15.6.2007].
<Http://perseus.uchicago.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057&scheme=section*&type=section>
.
425 Hegel, Georg Willhelm Friedrich. Philosophy of History. Marxists Internet Archive. [6.6.2007].
<Http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/hi/hiconten.htm>
426 Baur, Ferdinand Christian. On Historical Criticism. Institute for Higher Critical Studies. Drew University.
[2.2.2007].
<Http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/baurjhc.html>
Gunkel (1862-1932) with his commentary on Genesis first published in 1901. Literary criticism and source criticism had been used in such a way that the different sources of the Pentateuch and the redactional material were separated from each other on grounds of style and vocabulary.
In the 19th century women had to fight for their right to speak in public and they claimed their part in public speaking. Women argued for the same laws for men and women addressing male audiences. In the second part of the century women’s efforts concentrated on winning the right to vote. George Eliot made translations of Strauss's Life of Jesus (1846) and Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity (1854).427 Mary Ann Evans, known under this pen name, was an English novelist of the Victorian era; George Eliot’s novels are well known for their realism and psychological perspective of personae dramatis in provincial England. Eliot translated Strauss' Life of Jesus under the title The Life of Jesus Critically Examined by D. F.
Strauss containing a History of the Birth and Childhood of Jesus, a History of the Public Life of Jesus, a History of the Passion, Death, and Resurrection of Jesus, and a Concluding Dissertation on The Dogmatic Import of the Life of Jesus.428 In New York in 1860 The Life of Jesus Critically Examined by Dr. David Friedrich Strauss in a translation of Marian Evans was published. In Part III chapter I Relation of Jesus to the Idea of a suffering and Dying Messiah; his Discourses on the Death, Resurrection, and Second Advent contains the expression 'to communicate' for the conversation between Jesus and his followers:
In order to decide between these alternatives, we must first examine whether, prior to the death of Jesus, and independently of that event, the messianic ideas of the age included the characteristics of suffering and death. If already in the lifetime of Jesus it was the Jewish opinion that the Messiah must die a violent death, then it is highly probable that Jesus imbibed this idea as a part of his convictions, and communicated it to his disciples; who, in that case, could so much the less have remained uninstructed on this point, and overwhelmed by the actual result, in the degree alleged.429
But the new critical approaches also resulted in protests by conservative theologicians. The British missionary for the Synode at Utah Samuel Ellis Wishard wrote in The Testimony of the Bible Concerning Destructive Criticism in 1909 about the work of the ‘destructive critics’:
The work of the destructive critics has been widely disseminated in current literature. Magazines, secular newspapers, and some religious papers are giving currency to these critical attacks on the Word of God. The young people of our churches are exposed to the insidious poison of this skepticism. It comes to them under the guise of a broader and more liberal scholarship. They have neither the time nor
427 Cf. Haase, Fee-Alexandra. “Christian Gottlob Heyne (1729-1812). Ein begriffsgeschichtlicher Beitrag des 18.
Jahrhunderts zur Etablierung wissenschaftlicher Kritik.” In: Jahrbuch für Internationale Germanistik. Vol.
XXXII. 2 (2002). P. 105-117
428 Strauss, David Friedrich. The Life of Jesus. Transl. from the Fourth German Edition by Marian Evans.
London: Swan Sonnenschein 1892. Early Christian Writings. [2.2.2007].
<Http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/strauss/>
429 The Life of Jesus Critically Examined by Dr. David Friedrich Strauss. Transl. from the Fourth German Edition By Marian Evans. Early Christian Writings. [2.2.2007].
<Http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/strauss/>
the equipment to enter the field of criticism, nor is this work demanded of them.430
Emily Bronte in Wuthering Heights (1847) uses the phrase ‘the door of communication’ and
‘hold any communication with’. In Bouvier's Law Dictionary (1856) the term communication is used:
In order to make a contract, it is essential there should be an agreement; a bare communication or conference will not, therefore, amount to a contract; nor can evidence of such communication be received in order to take from, contradict, or alter a written agreement. 1 Dall. 426; 4 Dall. 340; 3 Serg. & Rawle, 609. Vide Pour-parler; Wharton's Dig. Evid. R.431
During the 19th century philosophical idealism emerged from the interaction of art doctrine, art history, and art criticism. Critics and archaeologists concentrated on the artworks of the past. Rationalism with critical implication in the 19th century had similarities to secular humanism and atheism. Conservative groups and academies still used the artes liberales concept and considered criticism as an auxiliary faculty within it. The Jesuits had still large influence throughout Europe preserving the liberal arts-tradition. Moral lessons were a part of the instruction in terms of literacy in the mid- and late 19th century. During the 19th century European scholars studying languages and history tried to add scientific methodological rigor to the work. These scholars considered their traditional national literature as a result of a progression in terms of cultural refinement. The 19th century brought new technical inventions to Europe and North America. In 1807 the camera lucida was invented in order to improve image tracing. In 1831 Joseph Henry invented the first electric telegraph. In the 60s new inventions for a more sophisticated communication network were made. In 1860 French Rene Dagron invented a microfilm technique using glass plates. In 1863 German Johann Philipp Reis invented the telephone. In 1877 Thomas Edison patented the phonograph. Edward Muybridge invented high speed photography creating first moving pictures that captured motion. In 1887 Emile Berliner invented the gramophone and in the following year, 1888, George Eastman patented Kodak roll film camera. Communication in the 19th century became a term for global information exchange with traditional and new technical tools of communication. Communication Universelle à Messieurs les Savants de Notre Planète written by Paléologos C. Candargy was published in Athenes in 1899. Le Voyage du Bon duc Antoine de Lortaine à Valenciennes en 1543 avec récit du parcours à travers les Ardennes as a Communication de M. H. Vincent à l'Académie Nationale de Reims was written by Edmond DuBoullay and published in Reims in 1883. Telegraphic Communication with India was written by Francis Gisborne and published in London in 1857. Inner Africa laid Open, in an Attempt to Trace the Chief Lines of Communication across that Continent South of the Equator written by William Desborough Cooley and in London in 1852 published. The Observations sur la Communication Supposée entre le Niger et le Nil were written by Charles Tilstone Beke and published in Paris in 1849. Communication became also a term coined for the movement of goods with new technical developments like used in the writing A Treatise upon Elemental Locomotion and Interior Communication, Wherein are Explained and illustrated, the History, Practice and Prospects of Steam Carriages, and the Comparative
430 Wishard, Samual Ellis. The Testimony of the Bible Concerning Destructive Criticism. The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Testimony of the Bible Concerning the Assumptions of Destructive Criticism. University College Cork. [2.2.2007].
<Http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/E800003-007/>
431 Bouvier's Law Dictionary. The DICT Development Group. [2.2.2007].
<Http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict>
Value of Tturnpike Roads, Railways, and Canals written by Alexander Gordon, which was published in 3rd edition in London in the year 1836.
The main communication tool was the mass printing and distribution of written information in newspapers and books. The press media were the place for public reports and discussions about the arts. This availability of mass media made questions of taste, beauty, and perfection available to wide groups of the society. At the beginning of the 19th century Romanticism became the common man’s esthetics with interpretation based on spontaneous feeling. Early methods of systematic art criticism in the 19th century provided ways to interpret the content of artwork. An academically educated man could become art critic since the 18th century.
Public exhibitions of art flourished. Johann Joachim Winckelmann’s widely known History of
Public exhibitions of art flourished. Johann Joachim Winckelmann’s widely known History of