Personality systems interaction theory and creativity

PSI-Theory is an integrative theory of the person that views mental functioning as the interplay of different psychological systems (for a detailed discussion see Kuhl, 2000). A simplified model is illustrated in Figure 2.1. Besides positive and negative affect as the dynamic “engine” of the model, the theory distinguishes two complex and two elementary

mental systems. Affective processes that mostly occur outside of a person’s awareness modulate the access to the different mental systems (Quirin, Kazen, Rohrmann et al., 2009).

That is, depending on one’s level of positive and negative affect, the systems are accessible or inaccessible. The four systems are hypothetical constructs and should not be conceived as structural entities. Although there is some evidence linking these systems to regions of the brain, the systems are defined in terms of their mental functions (Baumann, Kuhl, & Kazen, 2005). We limit our discussion of the theory to what is of immediate relevance for creativity.

Figure 2.1. Simplified PSI-Theory model of mental functioning

First, creativity most directly depends on a system that provides the person with the extensive network of semantic representations from which creative associations can be formed, a system which is referred to as extension memory. “Extension memory is the repository for extended networks of remote semantic associations such as meaningful experiences, options for action, personal values, and many other aspects of the `integrated self´” (Kuhl, 2000b, p. 670). This system is active, for instance, if a person intuitively realizes that there is a connection between the three words green, pass, and goat. All three words are related to the common theme mountain and extension memory enables people to realize this connection (Baumann & Kuhl, 2002). Extension memory is characterized by a fast, holistic, and intuitive manner of processing. The presence of positive affect provides access to extension memory because positive affect reduces negative affect (see Figure 2.1).

Negative affect

Intuitive behavior

control system Object

recogni-tion system Extension

memory

_ _

Intention memory

+

_

+

Positive affect

However, extension memory alone does not suffice for real-world creativity. As ideas are only useful if they are connected to the goals a person pursues, a system is necessary which represents and stores goals, which develops plans of action, and which monitors goal progress. This system is referred to as intention memory. If intention memory is not active at some point, a person may “get lost” in the extensive network of extension memory and form associations that are irrelevant for a given situation. Intention memory is characterized by a slow, controlled, and effortful mode of processing. Information is processed in a sequential-analytic manner. A state of high positive affect, such as being enthusiastic about a new idea, is not compatible with intention memory. The system functions most effectively if positive affect is damped by the presence of negative affect.

There is increasing evidence for the notion that two families of cognitive processes with the characteristics of extension and intention memory can be differentiated. This notion is often referred to under the label of dual-process theories (Chaiken & Trope, 1999;

Kahneman & Frederick, 2002). In the field of creativity research, De Dreu, Baas, and Nijstad (2008) have recently tested a dual-pathway to creativity model that distinguishes persistence and cognitive flexibility as two essential functions for creativity. These functions relate to the two systems of intention memory and extension memory.

Besides these complex cognitive systems, PSI-Theory distinguishes two elementary mental systems that interact with the complex systems and the environment of a person. For creativity, the perceptive object recognition system is important because it is sensitive to discrepancies and provides a person with novel information, for instance on details of a task which a person has not expected or so far overlooked (cf. George & Zhou, 2007). The object recognition system is active if negative affect is high. It is characterized by a similar mode of information processing as intention memory (i.e. slow and analytical). In such a mode, a person focuses on specific entities which are isolated from their context. Such entities or objects can refer to the external environment, for instance, a sentence a person is reading that does not make sense, as well as to internal events such as identifiable thoughts or emotions a person is focusing on (Kuhl, 2000b).

Creativity also depends on the second elementary system referred to as the intuitive behavior control system. Concerning its mode of information processing, the system is similar to extension memory (i.e. fast and parallel). The intuitive behavior control system is activated if positive affect is high. The system performs elementary intuitive operations that are

important for creativity such as spontaneously exploring a new course of action the

environment offers. The system also frees up cognitive resources for complex cognitive operations. For instance, if one is able to perform routine processes such as typewriting automatically, cognitive resources are available that can be used for complex problem solving (Ohly, Sonnentag, & Pluntke, 2006).

We infer from this theory that creativity is one of the most complex mental functions, which requires, more than other performance relevant behaviors, an effective interplay of the different systems of the mind. According to the theory, the dynamics of positive and negative affect are essential for regulating a balanced and effective interplay (Kuhl, 2000a). Let us readdress Hypothesis 1a and 1b from the perspective of this theory: If positive affect turns from low to high, it allows the intuitive behavior control system to carry out a plan that was previously developed and temporarily stored in intention memory. In this intuitive mode of information processing, negative affect is reduced and individuals can access their large network of memories stored in extension memories, which enables new associations (Hypothesis 1a). If negative affect turns from low to high, for instance, because a person repeatedly fails to solve a problem, the object recognition system is activated. People become sensitive to discrepant information and start focusing on specific objects. Information

processing focuses on details and proceeds in a sequential-analytical manner. Negative affect also reduces positive affect. In a state of reduced positive affect, a person can analyze

problems and develop plans of action. If a shift in affect from negative to positive occurs (Hypothesis 1b), extension memory is activated again, the system which enables intuitive associations among the vast network of memories (Bolte et al., 2003; Kuhl, 2001). By integrating the detailed understanding of a situation which individuals have gained during a phase of negative affecte into extension memory, individuals can change their existing

knowledge to incorporate novel information. Individuals can thereby achieve creative insights that would not occur, had they not experienced a phase of negative affect (cf., Kazen,

Baumann, & Kuhl, 2003). Therefore, shifting to positive affect after a phase of negative affect should be associated with high creativity.

More specific hypotheses on when creativity occurs can be derived from PSI-Theory if individual differences in personality functioning are taken into account. According to the theory, individual differences in personality functioning relate to how people regulate positive and negative affect (e.g., Baumann & Kuhl, 2002; Bolte et al., 2003). As affect modulates access to the different systems, individual differences in affect regulation should relate to how

well and under which conditions people can access the different systems. The concept of action versus state orientation describes these individual differences.