The following chapter is concerned with specific aspects of occupational safety and health culture that are significant for the realisation of r psychosocial risk manage-ment s. Following a brief overview of important dimensions of occupational safety and health culture, the following points in particular will be examined in depth by means of the workplace cases: the use of notions and the realisation of operational practices (holistic nature and integration of risk assessment in organisational pro-cesses).
8.1 Dimensions of occupational safety and health culture
On closer consideration, in some cases considerable differences between the coun-tries can be seen with regard to the tradition of the welfare state, workers' participa-tion rights, the weight given to social dialogue as an instrument of the balance of in-terests in conjunction with predominant management strategies, and political priorities in occupational safety and health (combined with facilities for the occupa-tional safety and health infrastructure). These points, which relate to the culture of participation, have been dealt with already in chapters 4 and 5.
In the analysis of occupational safety and health culture, the focus will be placed below on visible artefacts (e.g. definitions, organisational practice) and less on fun-damental values, norms and basic assumptions (cf. Schein, 1985, for this differentiation).
The Swedish approach of "systematic work environment management" conforms to the integrative approach of the European Occupational Safety and Health Frame-work Directive in the sense of integration of occupational safety and health into gen-eral management processes38.
In Denmark, "formal rules (were) deferred in favour of problem solution based ne-gotiation processes between management and workers" (Larisch, 2009, p. 46)
This integrative approach is realised in Great Britain with the concept of "Man-agement Standards" (see chapter 8), whereby here the aspect of the representative participation of workers in occupational safety and health, which is mapped in the European Participation Index (EPI) (see chapter 5), is relatively weak, unlike Sweden and Denmark in particular, but also Spain.
Orientation towards formal compliance with regulations, which aims at avoiding sanc-tions (Walters et al., 2012, pp. 92 f.), is characteristic for occupational safety and health culture in Spain. Inadequate integration of occupational safety and health into company organisations, combined with delegation of responsibility for prevention to an external service provider, is regarded as a major obstacle for prevention at work in Spain.
The prevention culture is accentuated by the integration of occupational safety and health into company organisations that is called for by the European Occupational Safety and Health Framework Directive.
38 https://www.av.se/globalassets/filer/publikationer/bocker/books/systematic-work-environment-management-and-stress-h366-book.pdf [as of 09.10.2015]
8.2 Distinctive features of occupational safety and health culture at company level
In the following section, three central aspects of occupational safety and health cul-ture revealed in the case studies are shown in greater detail: 1) separation or con-nection of "traditional" and psychosocial risk management (holistic nature), 2) use of concepts and notions in the range of topics, 3) integration of risk management into operational processes.
In Denmark and Sweden, where psychosocial stress has already been regarded for many years as a fixed component of the "working environment" (prevention of psychosocial stress has been incorporated into law since 1974 in Denmark and since 1977 in Sweden), "traditional" and psychosocial risk management is interconnected.
Although the issue has been discussed in Great Britain since the 1970s as well (stat-utory provisions since 1974), up to the present connecting the two areas has not been the object of statutory regulations or recommendations. In Spain, the issue of psychosocial stress is a comparatively new subject (incorporated into law since 1995) and up to now has been discussed on the whole separately from physical or
"traditional" stress. While a holistic risk assessment in which physical and psychoso-cial stress were recorded jointly was practised in all the Scandinavian case studies, the two areas were separated in the case studies in England and in Spain.
Resource bundling and the improved approachability of the subject area of psy-chosocial stress, which is described as difficult, were stated to be advantages of in-tegration. Interlinking draws attention to a holistic organisation of work conditions and makes the interdependence of the two areas clear. From the expert's point of view, one consequence is that accidents in the workplace that are the result of organisa-tional problems can be prevented more easily. In addition, existing structures, proce-dures and instruments can be used – such as, for example, "safety rounds" in Swe-den or workplace assessments (APV) in Denmark.
The reduction of complexity is referred to above all as an advantage of separate processes. In cases in particular in which management did not actively help to drive the process forward, separation of the two processes was regarded as facilitation of project management (division of responsibilities and fixing deadlines etc.) through a step-by-step process.
The many years of dealing with the topic becomes clear in the Scandinavian case studies through the use of terminology. The neutral and comprehensive term psy-chosocial "working environment" (arbetsmiljö) is used in Denmark and Sweden.
At company level there is a preference in the case studies for choosing positive terminology (e.g. "trivsel" in Denmark - "wellbeing"). At company level, the definition of risk tends to be used for physical stress and visible dangers (threats of violence, violent attacks).
In the case studies in Spain, where this topic was only taken up recently, hazards or the safety aspect is stressed with the term "psychosocial risks" (riesgos psicoso-ciales – including instrument induced, because these notions are applied in the framework of ISTAS21), and in the British establishments in the study the conse-quences of stress are pushed into the foreground. In addition, the focus on stress is accompanied there by great emphasis on the share of the individual in the develop-ment of stress. However, with increasing involvedevelop-ment with the subject, a tendency can be seen in the two British establishments in the study as well to strengthen the positive focus in the choice of terms (stress and well-being).
An explicit separation of psychosocial risk management from activities in the area of workplace heath management – where a workplace health management system exists – cannot be found in any of the case studies. Different interlinking with other organisational processes takes place depending on where risk management is at-tached, to occupational safety and health or (more frequently) to the personnel de-partment or subordinate organisational units (occupational health or organisational development). Better strategic coordination with other associated areas and more individual customising of training and measures to addressees with greater emphasis on organisational psychology issues (such as group dynamics etc.) are discussed as advantages of attachment to the personnel department.