A Few Observations on the Nature of Current Work and the Workplace as Fostering

Statistically Americans work more than Europeans, a condition encoded into the labour laws of the two regions. Changes in modern jobs and working conditions have increased stress on both sides of the ocean in view of technological advancements and organisational innovations, but the American competitive free market system, legislation and the socioeconomic situation place more stress on the individual, increase the level of anxiety, and lead to a busier, more work-filled society. The following section will first discuss changes in the nature of work and then proceed by looking at the realities of the contemporary workplace that can be seen as driving Americans to work.

Much of modern work both in the US as well as the EU differs from what has traditionally been considered work. With the continual spread of automation, more people have moved from completing difficult or dull manual tasks into the service sector, and a growing number of workers deal with knowledge-intensive information work. The new jobs can be said to be cleaner and physically less demanding than the factory jobs of the past, but that does not necessarily imply that they are inherently more gratifying. Indeed, Galbraith has noted that still, “much work is repetitive, tedious, painfully fatiguing, mentally boring or socially demeaning” (32). For Galbraith, it is usually at the upper echelons of the occupational ladder that work becomes enjoyable for the individuals, and nicer jobs tend to be the better rewarded ones (32). Much of white-collar work now resembles the assembly line and the rank-and-file white-collar worker has to face rising pace of work, a wider range of tasks, a more strenuous work environment, and increased insecurity as to the prospects of maintaining the job.

Many authors associate a different, mental form of stress with the new work environment. Catherine Casey points out the rise of “multi-activity jobs” that merge tasks that before belonged to the job-descriptions of several people (36). Attentiveness, decision-making and analysis skills are increasingly expected of employees (Casey 37) and the pace of work has considerably risen, furthered by the onslaught of various forms of information-technology. Better jobs require education and continual refreshment of knowledge, and are restricted in number. Many of the information-intense jobs can be considered to occupy a considerable degree of concentration, making it difficult to get mind off work at free time. Additionally, communication technology, such as mobile phones and laptop computers have greatly facilitated the availability of employees,

making it possible for people to be contacted outside their regular working hours and keeping individuals on call twenty four hours a day. Constant accessibility and the inability to keep work matters off one’s mind can be considered to increase the levels of tension and the sentiment of work taking over leisure felt by the ordinary modern office worker. Also, interruptions and distractions workers have to put up with on a daily basis transform the working environment into a more arduous one.

Due to changes in the economic structure of society, job insecurity has become an important source of worry for the average worker, increasingly so also in Europe. Beck states that whereas modernity was characterised by a secure job for life, this is no longer the case for most contemporary workers in a post-fordist society bound for the Second Modernity. The gains in productivity have not translated into a leisure society as was hopefully predicted in the fifties, but rather into a starker vision of a future with possibly more work for those who work and unemployment for vast numbers of others (Beck;

Rifkin “The end of Work”). International corporations that act on the sole purpose of gaining profit for their shareholders have significantly gained in sway. Nation states have little power in influencing corporations’ business decisions as regards merging, separating, downsizing or restructuring that have an effect on workers-citizens.

Individuals thus lack security as to their future, a fact that can be used by the employers to pressure employees into working more, or as expressed by Casey, with fewer jobs around, “employees can be controlled and disciplined better” (45).

Though people both in America and in Europe have faced similar changes in work conditions in view of the modernisation process, Europeans have, up until now, enjoyed a greater level of protection by labour legislation and by trade unions. For American workers, living in a more pro-business enterprise culture, the imperative to work has been more influential due to lack of guarantees, the employers’ persistence at keeping and increasing existing hours and the desires to consume (with attendant need to pay for the things and services consumed), but possibly also due to the drive of personal ambitions, as the more ardent workers are believed to have greater chances of progressing towards higher positions and greater riches.

Getting more from less people is in accordance with sound business logic as it provides a way of saving on fringe benefits and schooling costs. Many employers thus can be seen as encouraging the trend of longer hours. As explained by Schor, when presenting the case of the ‘Overworked American,’ “rather than hire new people, and pay extra benefits they would entail, many firms have just demanded more from their existing workforces. They have sped up the pace of work and lengthened time on the job” (40).

Working with less people, a trend furthered by increasing automation, keeps some people out of employment, generating the existence of a pool of ready applicants and fostering the feelings of a need to hang on to work by those already employed, who are more willing to cede to the demands of the employer. Even paying more for overtime work performed pays off over employing new workers. Schor, commenting on Americans, further notes “in an atmosphere of high unemployment and weak unions, workers have found it difficult to refuse [working longer hours]” (40). The overall mood of anxiety can be seen as pushing people towards dedicating more of their time to work, as they perceive the competition of those out of employment or underemployed.

One reason to keep working hours up could be the purpose of keeping productivity possibly high. Although overall EU productivity has lagged behind that of the US, the

productivity level of individual European countries e.g. that of France can be higher than that of the US. The lower GDP in France is a result of lower working hours and higher unemployment figures and thus partly a lifestyle choice. In contrast to France, where working hours have been reduced with increases in productivity, American employees, according to Schor, have tended to have productivity gains paid by increased salary and not by time (76). It can be argued that while Americans work longer hours and produce more, the French produce efficiently per hour but the total time spent on work in the society is lower with the ensuing lower GDP. The issue of productivity opens up a facet in the discussion of a society’s preference for leisure or for growth. It seems that while Americans emphasise the importance of the GDP as proving economic success, for Europeans the endless increase of the GDP and of the work hours does not merit a similar degree of emphasis.

The increasing insecurity and the wish to avoid poverty urge people to take on several jobs at a time if a single full-time job is unavailable or if the salary earned by working full-time at one post proves inadequate. In the US, the situation is especially difficult for the low-skilled workers, as the labour market is more flexible there, and hiring and firing easier for the employers. Though the US governments have had a habit of periodically boasting the creation of thousands of new jobs, many of these posts provide small salaries and few benefits, at times even presupposing that the employee work at several places.

Beck summarizes the situation in the comment ”the ‘job miracle’ itself forces many Americans to take on more than one job to maintain their family’s living standards, instead of the single one that used to be sufficient. As a result millions are practically never at home anymore: they live on the job” (116). Though filling their lives with work,

“the working poor” have little chance of escaping poverty (Beck 89). These low-skill jobs are also easily sacrificed in the more unfavourable economic circumstances. In this regard Europe with its typically tougher employment policies gives more security to the average worker. Support European welfare states provide their poorer members cannot be said to enable the deprived to live comfortably off the benefits without a care in the world (a perspective often depicted with reference to immigrant groups seen as abusing the welfare system), but it does assist those in need and signals that the society will help.

Another factor increasing the total of work time on both sides of the Atlantic is the entry of women onto the labour market. The trend has been necessary for the maintenance of the middle-class lifestyle that in modern times increasingly needs two incomes to be kept up. With more consumer goods around, more people are needed to work and consume. Working women lack time for traditional house-chores and though aided by various time-saving appliances and increasingly by their spouses, work outside home can be seen as contributing to the overall sense of harriedness. It has been pointed out that while European women often work shorter schedules or part-time and have more time to take care of household tasks, many American women prefer to spend more time on work and pay for household services providing an income (though one of low value) for others (Mees). Americans are thus more likely to hire nannies and eat in restaurants, as they are said to have bigger incomes and less time.

The business culture of the US with its emphasis on hard work, long hours and a competitive atmosphere, places a strain on the workers to devote much time and effort to the company, often at the expense of their private life. The concentration on work can be seen as leading some to an obsessive relationship with work, a condition known as

workaholism. Schor sees the American “cultural disposition to hard work” as a factor promoting workaholism in the United States and additionally views the phenomenon as a

“creation of the system,” criticising employers for encouraging people to work excessively (70). Referring to the American penchant for competitiveness, the author argues that workaholics turn workaholism into a norm by setting standards that others might feel obliged to comply (70). FWI data shows 1/3 of all US employees as

“chronically overworked” (“Overwork in America” 2). Although laziness is largely scorned upon all over contemporary Western society, disproportionate commitment to work cannot be considered sustainable either. Wanting to support their family and lifestyle, and afraid of losing their job, people can feel trapped to drudge away out of a sense of obligation and an inability to resist the demands. Schor thinks that “excessive hours are unhealthy and unsocial, and ultimately erode the quality of life” (141). A shortage of free time and a constant pursuit of success in one’s career or a desperate desire to hold on to work can lead to estrangement from friends, family and loved ones and thus to feelings of loneliness. Negative physical aspects of overload and lack of unwinding include stress, burnout, moodiness, irritation, indifference, fatigue and a feeling of being drained by work. An increasing number of people realise that balance is needed, but find it difficult to compete against the system that reveres dedicated workers and expects tasks to be completed. While many reluctantly toil away, dreaming of shorter hours, many others feel proud about working long hours as for them the extra time spent on work signals commitment, especially so in America.

Work thus can be seen as consuming modern societies for various reasons. A large number of people in both the United States and the West European countries work under high pressure and face increasing insecurity, but Americans are often perceived as leading busier lives. This tendency is corroborated by contemporary working time statistics. Additionally, Americans’ “winner takes all” approach and high competitiveness motivate people to dedicate themselves to work, as does the liberality of their socioeconomic system that fosters workplace flexibility and leaves people largely to their own devices within the society. Beck further sees America as “one of the world’s emerging post-Western countries” with a “become a life artist or go under” (118) mentality implying that social guarantees are deficient and in the atmosphere of prevailing uncertainty it is up to the individuals to create their present and future, which can be seen as a factor leading to increased dedication to work. As another illustration for the work-centeredness of the contemporary American society, a quote by an American worker saying “either I can spend time with my family, or support them – not both”

(Schor 21) befits. The coordinating economic approach that characterises many countries in Western Europe, with its job/employee-protection laws and its system of benefits, can be seen as relieving the pressure to dedicate one’s life to work and as curbing the motivation for excessive toil. Stereotypically too, Europeans are often depicted as having more free time and leading more leisurely lives.