5. G ENERAL DISCUSSION
5.3 O VERALL CONCLUSION
5.3 Overall conclusion
In order to be able to grow and reliably contributes to society later on in life, children require good care and proper parenting from their caregivers and educators within and outside the family. Unfortunately, exposure to maltreatment and mental health problems among the children highlighted in the present study might diminish their expected contributions to society. In fact, the present study indicated a high prevalence of mental health problems among secondary school students in Tanzania and a significant association between physical violence by parents and mental health problems in children. In line with this, mental health problems in children were associated with peer violence, emotional violence by teachers and parental stress.
78
These facts emphasize the need for educating parents, caregivers, and teachers on the importance to use non-violent discipline strategies in families and schools so as to prevent children from mental health problems. On top of that, reducing parents’ stress may be a necessary action so as to reduce violence which might contribute to the use of violent disciplining strategies by parents. Due to reported high exposure to violence among children, societal beliefs about violent disciplining strategies in all settings should be addressed in order to prevent children's health and dignity.
79 6 References
Ahn, S. & Fedewa, A. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the Relationship Between Children’s Physical Activity and Mental health. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36(4), 385–397.
http://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsq107
Antonowicz, L. (2010). Too often in Silence: A report on school-based violence in West and Central Africa. Sweden. Retrieved from
https://www.unicef.org/cotedivoire/Too_often_in_silence_Report.pdf
Aras, S., Ozan, S., Timbil, S., Semin, S., & Kasapci, O. (2016). Exposure of Students to Emotional and Physical Violence in the School Environment. Noro Psikiyatri Arsivi, 53(4), 303–310. http://doi.org/10.5152/npa.2016.11323
Ashenafi, Y., Kebede, M., Desta, M., & Alem, A. (2001). Prevalence of mental and behavioural disorders in Ethiopian clildren. East Afr Med J, 78(6), 308–311.
Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. (2005). The role of parenting styles in children’ s problem behavior.
Child Development, 76(6), 1144–1159. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00840.x-i1 Ba-Saddik, a S., & Hattab, a S. (2013). Physical abuse in basic-education schools in Aden
governorate, Yemen: a cross-sectional study. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal = La Revue de Santé de La Méditerranée Orientale = Majallah Ṣiḥḥīyah Li-Sharq Al-Mutawassiṭ, 19(4), 333–9. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23882958 Baker-Henningham, H., Meeks-Gardner, J., Chang, S., & Walker, S. (2009). Experiences of
violence and deficits in academic achievement among urban primary school children in Jamaica. Child Abuse and Neglect, 33(5), 296–306.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.05.011
Barrett, A. M. (2005). Teacher accountability in context: Tanzanian primary school teachers’
perceptions of local community and education administration. Comp A J Comp Int Educ., 35(1), 43–61. http://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057920500033530
Beazley, H., Bessell, S., Ennew, J., & Waterson, R. (2006). What children say: Results of comparative research on the physical and emotional punishment of children in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: Save the Children Sweden Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved from https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/sites/default/files/documents/1397.pdf Bennell, P., & Akyeampong, K. (2007). Teacher Motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia. Dfid. Retrieved from
r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/PolicyStrategy/ResearchingtheIssuesNo71.pdf
Berlin, L. J., Ispa, J. M., Fine, M. a, Malone, P. S., Brooks-gunn, J., & Brady-smith, C. (2009).
Correlates and Consequences of Spanking and Verbal Punishment for Low-Income White,
80
African American, and Mexican Toddlers. Child Dev, 80(5), 1403–1420.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01341.x
Bonell, C., Jamal, F., Harden, A., Wells, H., Parry, W., Fletcher, A., … Moore, L. (2013).
Systematic review of the effects of schools and school environment interventions on health:
evidence mapping and synthesis. Public Health Research, 1(1), 1–320.
http://doi.org/10.3310/phr01010
Bowen, D. J., Kreuter, M., Spring, B., Linnan, L., Weiner, D., Bakken, S., … Fabrizio, C. (2009).
How We Design Feasibility Studies. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 36(5), 452–457. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.02.002.How
Brislin, R. M., Lonner, W. J., Thorndike, R. M. (1973). Cross cultural research methods. New York: NY: WILEY.
Bussmann, K., Erthal, C., & Schroth, A. (2009). The Effect of Banning Corporal Punishment in Europe : A Five-Nation Comparison. Global Pathways to Abolishing Physical Punishment, (October). Retrieved from
www.gruppocrc.net/IMG/pdf/Bussman_-_Europe_5_nation_report_2009.pdf
Catani, C., Jacob, N., Schauer, E., Kohila, M., & Neuner, F. (2008). Family violence, war, and natural disasters: a study of the effect of extreme stress on children’s mental health in Sri Lanka. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 33. http://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-8-33
Cheruvalath, R., & Tripathi, M. (2015). Secondary School Teachers’ Perception of Corporal Punishment: A Case Study in India. Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 88(4), 127–132. http://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2015.1045821
Clément, M. È., & Chamberland, C. (2009). The role of parental stress, mother’s childhood abuse and perceived consequences of violence in predicting attitudes and attribution in favor of corporal punishment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(2), 163–171.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-008-9216-z
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159.
http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
Connor, D. F., Steingard, R. J., Cunningham, J. A., Anderson, J. J., & Melloni, R. H. (2004).
Proactive and Reactive Aggression in Referred Children and Adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74(2), 129–136. http://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.74.2.129 Cooper, P., & Yan, Z. (2015). Some possible effects of behaviour management training on
teacher confidence and competence: evidence from a study of primary school teachers in Hong Kong. Educational Studies, 41(1–2), 156–170.
http://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2014.955739
81
Cortina, M., Sodha, A., Fazel, M., & Ramchandani, G. P. (2012). Prevalence of Child Mental Health Problems in Sub-Saharan Africa. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(3), 276. http://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.592
Covell, K., & Becker, J. (2011). Five Years on: A global update on violence against children, report for Against, the NGO advisory council for follow-up to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on violence Children. New York. Retrieved from
https://www.crin.org/en/docs/Five_Years_On.pdf
Crocetti, E., Hale, W. W., Dimitrova, R., Abubakar, A., Gao, C. H., & Pesigan, I. J. A. (2015).
Generalized Anxiety Symptoms and Identity Processes in Cross-Cultural Samples of Adolescents from the General Population. Child and Youth Care Forum, 44(2), 159–174.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-014-9275-9
Cui, N., Xue, J., Connolly, C. A., & Liu, J. (2016). Does the gender of parent or child matter in child maltreatment in China? Child Abuse and Neglect, 54, 1–9.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.01.003
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child
achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology : Journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 19(2), 294–304. http://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
Devries, K. M., Child, J. C., Allen, E., Walakira, E., Parkes, J., & Naker, D. (2014). School violence, mental health, and educational performance in Uganda. Pediatrics.
http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-2007
Devries, K. M., Knight, L., Child, J. C., Mirembe, A., Nakuti, J., Jones, R., … Naker, D. (2015).
The Good School Toolkit for reducing physical violence from school staff to primary school students: A cluster-randomised controlled trial in Uganda. The Lancet Global Health, 3(7), e378–e386. http://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00060-1
Dubowitz, H., & Bennett, S. (2007). Physical abuse and neglect of children. The Lancet, 369(9576), 1891–1899. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60856-3
Durrant, J. E. (2008). Physical punishment, culture, and rights: current issues for professionals.
Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 29(1), 55–66.
http://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e318135448a
Durrant, J., & Ensom, R. (2012). Physical punishment of children: Lessons from 20 years of research. CMAJ. http://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.101314
Feinstein, S., & Mwahombela, L. (2010). Corporal punishment in Tanzania’s schools.
82
International Review of Education, 56(4), 399–410. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-010-9169-5
Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Spanking, corporal punishment and negative long-term outcomes: a meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies. Clin Psychol Rev, 33(1), 196–208.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.11.002
Fidell, A. (2009). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS (3rd ed.). California: Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Fleming, L. C., & Jacobsen, K. H. (2009). Bullying among middle-school students in low and middle income countries. Health Promotion International, 25(1), 73–84.
http://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dap046
Gearing, R. E., Schwalbe, C. S. J., MacKenzie, M. J., Brewer, K. B., & Ibrahim, R. W. (2015).
Assessment of Adolescent Mental Health and Behavioral Problems in Institutional Care:
Discrepancies Between Staff-Reported CBCL Scores and Adolescent-Reported YSR Scores. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(3), 279–287. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-014-0568-y
Gershoff, E. T. (2002a). Corporal punishment, physical abuse, and the burden of proof: Reply to Baumrind, Larzelere, and Cowan (2002), Holden (2002), and Parke (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 602–611. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.602
Gershoff, E. T. (2002b). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539–
579. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539
Gershoff, E. T. (2010). More harm than good: A summary of scientific research on the intended and unintended effects of corporal punishment on children. Law and Contemporary
Problems, 73(2004), 31–56. Retrieved from
http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1565&context=lcp
Gershoff, E. T. (2013). Spanking and Child Development: We Know Enough Now To Stop Hitting Our Children, 7(3), 133–137. http://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12038.
Gershoff, E. T. (2017). School corporal punishment in global perspective: prevalence,
outcomes, and efforts at intervention. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 8506(March), 1–16.
http://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2016.1271955
Gershoff, E. T., & Font, S. A. (2016). Corporal punishment in U.S. public schools: Prevalence, disparities in use, and status in state and federal policy. Social Policy Report, 30(1), 1–26.
Retrieved from www.srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/spr_30_1.pdf
Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P., & Sameroff, A. J. (2012).
83
Longitudinal Links Between Spanking and Children’s Externalizing Behaviors in a National Sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American Families. Child Development, 83(3), 838–843. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01732.x
Gershoff, E. T., Purtell, K. M., & Holas, I. (2015). Briefs in Psychology: Advances in Child and Family Policy and Practice. (Barbara H. Fiese, Ed.). New York. Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-14818-2
Gewirtz, A., Forgatch, M., & Wieling, E. (2008). Parenting Practices As Potential Mechanisms for Child Adjustment F. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(2), 177–192.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00063.x
Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. The Lancet, 373(9657), 68–81. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61706-7
Global Advocacy Team, P. I. (2012). Plan’s Learn Without Fear campaign: Third progress.
Retrieved from https://plan-international.org/learn-without-fear-third-progress-report, report Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children(GIEACPC). (2015a). Ending
legalised violence against children. Retrieved from
www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/reports-global/Global-report-2015.pdf Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children(GIEACPC). (2015b). Prohibiting all
corporal punishment of children in Africa: progress and delay. Retrieved from
http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/briefings-regional/Progress-and-delay-Africa-2015-EN.pdf
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children(GIEACPC). (2015c). Towards Non-Violent Schools: Prohibiting All Corporal Punishment - Global Report 2015. Retrieved from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/reports-thematic/Schools Report 2015-EN.pdf
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children(GIEACPC). (2016a). Corporal punishment of children: summaries of prevalence and attitudinal research in the last 10 years. Retrieved from
www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/research-summaries/Global research%0Asummaries.pdf
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children(GIEACPC). (2016b). Corporal punishment of children: summaries of prevalence and attitudinal research in the last 10 years - East and Southern Africa, (2011), 1–25. Retrieved from
http://endcorporalpunishment.org/research/prevalence-research/
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children(GIEACPC). (2016c). Corporal
84
punishment of children in the United Republic of Tanzania. Retrieved from
http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/states-reports/URTanzania.pdf Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children [GIEACPC]. (2017a). Corporal
punishment of children in the United Republic of Tanzania. Retrieved from www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/states-reports/URTanzania.pdf
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children [GIEACPC]. (2017b). Prohibiting all corporal punishment of children in Africa : an essential step towards fulfilling the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development for Children in Africa : Accelerating protection , empowerment and equ. Retrieved from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/resources/regional-reports/day-of-the-african-child-briefing-2017.html
Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (1998). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A pilotstudy on the validity of the self-report version. European Child & Adolescentpsychiatry, 7(3), 125–130. http://doi.org/10.1007/s007870050057
Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1337–45.
http://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200111000-00015
Gould, F., Clarke, J., Heim, C., Harvey, P. D., Majer, M., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2012). The effects of child abuse and neglect on cognitive functioning in adulthood. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(4), 500–506. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.005
Greydanus, D. E., Pratt, H. D., Spates, C. R., Blake-Dreher, A. E., Greydanus-Gearhart, M. A.,
& Patel, D. R. (2003). Corporal punishment in schools: Position paper of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. Journal of Adolescent Health, 32(5), 385–393.
http://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00042-9
Grogan-kaylor, A., & Otis, M. D. (2003). Child Maltreatment. Child Maltreatment.
http://doi.org/10.1177/1077559502250810
Harden, K. P., Lynch, S. K., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., Waldron, M. D., Heath, A. C., &
Martin, N. G. (2010). A Behavior Genetic Investigation of Adolescent Motherhood and Offspring Mental Health Problems, 116(4), 667–683. http://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.4.667.
Hecker, T., Goessmann, T., Nkuba, M., & Hermenau, K. (2017). Teachers’ stress intensifies violent disciplining in Tanzanian secondary schools. Manuscript Submitted for Publication.
Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Isele, D., & Elbert, T. (2014). Corporal punishment and children’s externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children.
85
Child Abuse and Neglect. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.007
Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Isele, D., & Elbert, T. (2014). Corporal punishment and children’s externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children.
Child Abuse and Neglect, 9. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.007
Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Salmen, C., Teicher, M., & Elbert, T. (2016). Harsh discipline relates to internalizing problems and cognitive functioning: findings from a cross-sectional study with school children in Tanzania. BMC Psychiatry, 16, 1–9. http://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0828-3
Hecker, T., Radtke, K. M., Hermenau, K., Papassotiropoulos, A., & Elbert, T. (2016).
Associations among child abuse, mental health, and epigenetic modifications in the proopiomelanocortin gene (POMC): A study with children in Tanzania. Development and Psychopathology, 28(4pt2), 1401–1412. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001248 Hermenau, K., Eggert, I., Landolt, M. a, & Hecker, T. (2015). Neglect and perceived
stigmatization impact psychological distress of orphans in Tanzania. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 1, 1–9. http://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.28617
Hermenau, K., Hecker, T., Elbert, T., & Ruf-Leuschner, M. (2014). Maltreatment and mental health in institutional care-comparing early and late institutionalized children in tanzania.
Infant Mental Health Journal. http://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21440
Hermenau, K., Hecker, T., Ruf, M., Schauer, E., Elbert, T., & Schauer, M. (2011). Childhood adversity, mental ill-health and aggressive behavior in an African orphanage: Changes in response to trauma-focused therapy and the implementation of a new instructional system.
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 5(1), 29. http://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-5-29
Hermenau, K., Kaltenbach, E., Mkinga, G., & Hecker, T. (2015). Improving care quality and preventing maltreatment in institutional care – a feasibility study with caregivers. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 937. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00937
Herrenkohl, T. I., Klika, J. B., & Russo, M. J. (2013). Developmental Impacts of Child Abuse and Neglect Related to Adult Mental Health, Substance Use, and Physical Health. J Fam Violence, 28(2), 1–16. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-012-9474-9.
Hildyard, K. L., & Wolfe, D. A. (2002). Child neglect: Developmental issues and outcomes. Child Abuse and Neglect, 26(6–7), 679–695. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00341-1 Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:
Conventional versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
86
Hultman, C. M., Sandin, S., Levine, S. Z., Lichtenstein, P., & Reichenberg, A. (2011). Advancing paternal age and risk of autism: new evidence from a population-based study and a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 16(12), 1203–1212.
http://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2010.121
Infurna, M. R., Reichl, C., Parzer, P., Schimmenti, A., Bifulco, A., & Kaess, M. (2016).
Associations between depression and specific childhood experiences of abuse and neglect: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 190, 47–55.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.006
Ismayilova, L., Gaveras, E., Blum, A., To-Camier, A., & Nanema, R. (2016). Maltreatment and mental health outcomes among ultra-poor children in Burkina Faso: A latent class analysis.
PLoS ONE, 11(10), 1–25. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164790
Kaltenbach, E., Hermenau, K., Nkuba, M., Goessman, K., & Hecker, T. (2017). Improving interaction competencies with children - A pilot feasibility study to reduce school corporal punishment. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma. In Press.
Kaltenbach, E., Hermenau, K., Nkuba, M., & Hecker, T. (2017). Improving Interaction Competencies With Children — A Pilot Feasibility Study to Reduce School Corporal Punishment Improving Interaction Competencies With Children — A Pilot Feasibility Study to Reduce School Corporal. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 0(0), 1–19.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2017.1357060
Katz, L. Y., Afifi, T. O., Taillieu, T., & Cheung, K. (2015). Substantiated Reports of Child Maltreatment From the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect 2008 : Examining Child and Household Characteristics and Child Func ... Substantiated Reports of Child Maltreatment From the Canadian Inciden. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(7), 315–323. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26175390
Kieling, C., Baker-Henningham, H., Belfer, M., Conti, G., Ertem, I., Omigbodun, O., … Rahman, A. (2011). Child and adolescent mental health worldwide: Evidence for action. The Lancet, 378(9801), 1515–1525. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60827-1
Kinyanda, E., Kizza, R., Abbo, C., Ndyanabangi, S., & Levin, J. (2013). Prevalence and risk factors of depression in childhood and adolescence as seen in 4 districts of north-eastern Uganda. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 13(1), 19.
http://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-13-19
Kristensen, T. S., Borritz, M., Villadsen, E., & Christensen, K. B. (2005). The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout. Work & Stress, 19(3), 192–
207. http://doi.org/10.1080/02678370500297720
87
Lansford., J. E., Sharma, Chinmayi., Malone, P. S., Woodlief, D., Dodge, K. A., Oburu, P. ., Pastorelli, C., … Al-Hassan, Suha M. Alampay, L. P. (2007). Corporal Punishment,
Maternal Warmth, and Child Adjustment: A Longitudinal Study in Eight Countries Jennifer.
J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol., 454(1), 42–54.
http://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.893518.
Lansford, J. E., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2012). Childrearing discipline and violence in developing countries. Child Development, 83(1), 62–75.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01676.x
Lansford, J. E., Godwin, J., Uribe Tirado, L. M., Zelli, A., Al-Hassan, S. M., Bacchini, D., … Alampay, L. P. (2015). Individual, family, and culture level contributions to child physical abuse and neglect: A longitudinal study in nine countries. Development and
Psychopathology, 27(4pt2). http://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941500084X
Lansford, J. E., Sharma, C., Malone, P. S., Woodlief, D., Dodge, K. A., Oburu, P., … Di Giunta, L. (2014). Corporal Punishment , Maternal Warmth , and Child Adjustment : A Longitudinal Study in Eight Countries. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 43(4), 670–
685. http://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.893518
Lee, S. L., Lansford, J. E., Pettit, G. S, Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2012). Parental agreement of reporting parent to child aggression using the conflict tactics scales. Child Abuse
Neglect, 36(6), 510–518. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.04.005.
Lee, S. J., Bellamy, J. L., & Guterman, N. B. (2009). Fathers, physical child abuse, and neglect:
advancing the knowledge base. Child Maltreatment, 14(3), 227–231.
http://doi.org/10.1177/1077559509339388
Leeb, R. T., Paulozzi, L. J., Melanson, C., Simon, T. R., Arias, I. (2008). Child Maltreatment Surveilance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended data elements.
Atlanta Georgia. Retrieved from
https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cm_surveillance-a.pdf
Lekule, C. (2014). Investigating School Experiences of Vulnerable Children in Singida, Tanzania: Challenges, Strategies, and Possible Interventions. Retrieved from http://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd
Maher, E. J., Corwin, T. W., Hodnett, R., & Faulk, K. (2012). A cost-savings analysis of a
statewide parenting education program in child welfare. Research on Social Work Practice, 22(6), 615–625. http://doi.org/10.1177/1049731512449873
Menesini, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Bullying in schools: the state of knowledge and effective interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22(sup1), 240–253.
88 http://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2017.1279740
Morantz, G., Cole, D. C., Ayaya, S., Ayuku, D., & Braitstein, P. (2013). Maltreatment experiences and associated factors prior to admission to residential care: A sample of institutionalized children and youth in western Kenya. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37(10), 778–787. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.10.007
Morantz, G., Cole, D., Vreeman, R., Ayaya, S., Ayuku, D., & Braitstein, P. (2013). Child abuse and neglect among orphaned children and youth living in extended families in sub-Saharan Africa: What have we learned from qualitative inquiry? Vulnerable Child Youth Stud
January, 1(84). http://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2013.764476
Mulvaney, M. K., & Mebert, C. J. (2007). Parental corporal punishment predicts behavior problems in early childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(3), 389–397.
http://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.3.389
Mweru, M. (2010). Why Are Kenyan Teachers Still Using Corporal Punishment Eight Years After a Ban on Corporal Punishment? Child Abuse Review, 19, 248–258.
http://doi.org/10.1002/car.1121
Naong, M. (2007). The impact of the abolition of corporal punishment on teacher morale: 1994-2004. South African Journal of Education, 27(2), 283–300. Retrieved from
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/saje/article/download/44143/27658
Ndetei, D., Khasakhala, L., Nyabola, L., Ongecha-Owuor, F., Seedat, S., Mutiso, V., … Odhiambo, G. (2008). The prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms and syndromes in Kenyan children and adolescents. Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 20(1), 33–51. http://doi.org/10.2989/JCAMH.2008.20.1.6.491
Neece, C. L., Green, S. A., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Parenting Stress and Child Behavior Problems : A Transactional Relationship Across Time, 117(1), 48–66.
http://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-117.1.48
Nkuba, M., Hermenau, K., &, & Hecker, T. (2017). Violence and maltreatment in Tanzanian families – Findings from a nationally representative sample of secondary school students and their parents. Manuscript Submitted for Publication.
Nkuba, M., & Kyaruzi, E. (2015). Is it not now? School counselors’ training in Tanzania secondary schools. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(19), 160–170. Retrieved from files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1079546.pdf
Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012). The Long-Term Health Consequences of Child Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect: A
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Medicine, 9(11).
89 http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349
Oburu, P. O., & Palmérus, K. (2003). Parenting stress and self-reported discipline strategies of Kenyan caregiving grandmothers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(6), 505–512. http://doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000127
Ogando Portela, M. J., & Pells, K. (2015). Corporal punishment in schools: Longitudinal evidence from Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Viet Nam (Innocenti Discussion Paper No.
Ogando Portela, M. J., & Pells, K. (2015). Corporal punishment in schools: Longitudinal evidence from Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Viet Nam (Innocenti Discussion Paper No.