Non-academic stressors

There are certain stressors which may not be academic but they affect the mental health of university students. Salient of these stressors are explained below:

Financial dependency: Constrained financial resources may significantly cause stress among students. A number of studies across the world and in Pakistan have rated financial problems as one of the leading non-academic stressors for students (Babar et al., 2015; Bojuwoye, 2010; Dachew et al., 2015; Eisenberg et al., 2013; Shah et al., 2010; Stallman, 2010).

Financial problems have also been found to have an impact on the performance of students as well. When compounded with already existing mental issues, the implications of financial

49 issues may be worse (Drentea & Reynolds, 2015). Increased financial dependency of students is reflected by the fact that a large proportion of students (as high as 42%) is in paid employment and many students may finish their stay at university under debt (UNITE, 2004).

University students are in the turbulent dilemma of apparently independent socio economic status and increased financial dependency on family (Shaikh & Deschamps, 2006). This means that their kinship networks at university consider them as an adult responsible for his/her actions whereas at a more personal level, a student is generally dependent on his/her family for sustained support. The situation typically holds for developing countries where socioeconomic inequalities and low public spending on higher education extend the role of family even further (Afzal & Yusuf, 2013). While for some students, financial support from family may be sufficient to live comfortably, it may also increase the expectations of family.

These situations restrain the ability of young students to take independent decisions about their career thereby making them averse to new ideas and to attain an objective understanding of their surroundings.

Transition to university: The university environment is considered unique and transition to the university environment may be distressing especially for those who leave home to attend university (Abolfotouh et al., 2007b; Fisher, 1994; Soh et al., 2013). The students from other areas are particularly at risk because they have to adjust to new social conditions and also need to perform well academically form the outset (Andrade, 2006; Ross, Niebling, &

Heckert, 1999). In such cases, experiencing stress may be even more challenging due to the lack of interpersonal support systems (Hudd et al., 2000). While the student is adjusting to the new environment without adequate social support, he/she is also under pressure to socialize with the new people at the university (Mustaffa & Munirah, 2013; Wang, 2004) which may cause further stress. First year students are particularly vulnerable to such stress whereas foreign students additionally face an altogether different cultural milieu (Bojuwoye, 2010; Verger et al., 2009). In countries like Pakistan where there are a few foreign students, those hailing from rural areas have more or less similar problems as foreign students.

University circumstances: Apart from the structural issues emanating in external environment, groups construct their social reality in the context of interaction and experience (Weber, 1922). Thus, relations with fellow students, social support and social capital could well be important measures of students‟ mental health and well-being. Among these factors, stress associated with student-teacher relationship is arguably one of the most significant

50 determinants of student´s well-being and performance (Becker & Luthar, 2002). Students require a healthy personal relationship and teachers ought to be caring, encouraging and collaborative. To do this, teachers should adopt a collaborative rather than an instructive approach to reduce stress among the students (Millis, 2012). On the other hand, students assign primary importance to academic grades and evaluation anxiety is substantially high across different cultures (Ali et al., 2015; Misra, McKean, West, & Russo, 2000; Richardson, Abraham, & Bond, 2012; Vaez & Laflamme, 2008).

Culture shock: Culture is central to the socialization of an individual. In a multicultural environment, people generally find it difficult to cope with values different to their own.

Students from diversified socio-economic statuses attend the university and may suffer from culture shock to varying degrees (Furnham, 2004). The lowest point in culture shock is experienced between 3 to 12 months (Ward et al., 2005). Sustained exposure to a different culture in space and in time may lead to adjustment issues which are perhaps universal. The resultant shock may result in distress and depression in individuals (Ward et al., 2005).

It is also argued that differences between the culture of origin and the current culture determine the nature of the low point of culture shock. For instance, a study has suggested that European students find it relatively easy to adjust themselves in USA than Asian students (Oropeza, Fitzgibbon, & Barón Jr., 1991). Individual level factors also play an important role where personality traits such as emotional stability, adaptability and tolerance are critical factors influencing adjustment (Zhou et al., 2008).

It is suggested that contentment with one‟s own culture negatively affects adjustment into new culture (Furnham, 2004). The opposite of this could also be true where students not having pleasant experience with their own culture might find another culture more satisfying.

Students need to learn culturally plural values and adapt to the cultural diversity in order to be functional in their immediate environment (Dyson & Renk, 2006; Zhou et al., 2008).

However, not all the students are equally likely to accomplish this task positively. A study conducted in Malaysia found that previous travel experience and language proficiency significantly affects the propensity of students to adjust to the multicultural environment.

Failure to do so may cause culture shock which could lead to behavioral issues (Mustaffa

& Munirah, 2013).

51 Students from diversified socio-economic status attend the university and suffer from culture shock to varying degree (Wang, 2004). In developed countries, a significant number of international students study in universities and are more likely to face culture shock. On the other hand, large rural-urban divide in developing countries characterize this issue for university students from rural areas. For both these groups, living away from home and parents mostly for the first time in life cause adverse health outcomes (Sulaiman et al., 2009).

Transition of adolescence to adulthood: This is the stage of lifecycle where secondary socialization factors are affecting the attitudes and values of young students. The psychological developments going on through this particular period determine the students‟

level of social integration in adult life. The development of personality traits during adolescence has their significance for the later stages of life. Moreover, studies have suggested that biological changes occurring during this stage could create possibility of identity confusion and other depressive symptoms (Dyson & Renk, 2006; Reinherz, Giaconia, Hauf, Wasserman, & Silverman, 1999; Schulenberg & Maggs, 1999).

Career aspirations among university students: Though this particular factor is more relevant to final year students, high career aspirations are common among all university students. Such aspirations are linked to distress and fear of not meeting up to these expectations (Mikolajczyk et al., 2008; Vazquez & Blanco, 2006). Especially with underachieving students, it can cause severe mental health issues. Among other factors, pressures from family and peer groups to hold jobs in perceivably esteemed professions such as medicine and engineering etc. can even lead to fatal mental disorders and suicidal tendencies in some students (American College Health Association, 2007; Monk, 2004; Sebena et al., 2012).

Emotional disturbance in intimate social relations: University students are often encountered with the problem of finding a balance between the freewill they want to exercise and the determinism which their dependencies exert upon them. Such a state of mind is one of the several vaguely understood factors which contribute to problematic relationships within and outside family and cause mental disorders (Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Turner & Brown, 2010;

Verger et al., 2009). Similarly, emotional instability and less endurance may cause breakdown in intimate relationships both at university and outside. In societies where interaction across gender is not common, complexities are likely to arise in intimate relationships at the university. Besides causing mental health issues, such disturbances result

52 in low self-esteem which is a significant determinant of dropping out of education (Ahmed et al., 2013; Sreeramareddy et al., 2007b; Vaez & Laflamme, 2008)

Living Conditions at university: In order to impart knowledge and skills effectively, universities should provide a safe and healthy physical and social environment to support students‟ tasks. Students‟ dilemmas are aggravated with frail living conditions at university and these structural aspects are noted even in developed countries (Stock & Krämer, 2001).

For most of universities in developing countries, hygienic food, safe drinking water and adequate hostel facilities at campus are scarcely available (Akhtar & Kalsoom, 2012; Khan, 2013). Additionally, recreational facilities are limited and health facilities are not profound and student focused (Abolfotouh et al., 2007). Consequently, an unhealthy environment limits the students‟ capability of adaptation and coping in an otherwise stressful environment.

Many studies reported that students are not satisfied with the living space, noise, lights and many other aspects of living conditions (Abolfotouh et al., 2007; Bostanci et al., 2005;

Shaikh & Deschamps, 2006). Such conditions result in nutritional irregularities and subsequent physical health issues e.g. weight gain, and specifically affect students living at university residences.