Coral bleaching
1.7 Management strategies against coral bleaching
156
2011) (section 1.5). Coral reefs are generally resilient to localised disturbances because depleted populations can be repopulated by unaffected populations (Sale 1991).
However, the extent of coral bleaching can vary depending on population composition and susceptibility (section 1.5), and community effects can vary based on the extent of bleaching events. Immediate ecological responses to bleaching events are less studied than longer-term responses, but studies have shown that other (non-coral) species are affected by their degree of specialisation to corals and their ability to shift resources during alternative ecological states (Pratchett et al. 2009). Specifically, species that rely on corals for food or habitat, such as fish, show the quickest changes in populations, while reduction in coral populations may have sub-lethal effects on coral-specific organisms because later generations are not able to find habitat for recruitment. For example, butterfly fish and certain damselfish populations that experienced losses after extreme bleaching events were able to shift to bleached coral for habitat, but declined because the impacted reef was not suited for larval recruitment (Wilson et al. 2006). Therefore, it may be possible to use species that react strongly to changes in coral communities as pre-bleaching indicators of potential, post-pre-bleaching, coral reef health.
Bleaching-induced changes in habitat can lead to the long-term loss of species and function and overall degradation of reefs. On the community level, continuing function depends on the pre- and post-condition of the reef. In the Caribbean, reefs that existed in equilibrium state between corals and algae became algae-dominated after a relatively minor bleaching event due to an already reduced herbivore community (Ostrander et al.
2000), indicating that the pre-bleaching status of the ecosystem leads to higher levels of susceptibility. Sub-lethal effects on coral reef species, or inter-generational effects, depend on the recovery of the current system.
Although the susceptibility of coral reefs to degradation in relation to coral bleaching events is not easy to understand fully, many indications of possible effects can depend on the environment (changes in light attenuation and water temperature) and the community composition (present groups of organisms). It may be possible to use these conditions as an indication of susceptibility and the possible effects on these vulnerable ecosystems.
157 areas of high-biodiversity (hotspots) that are currently exposed to local anthropogenic stressors (Myers et al. 2000). The disadvantage of this conservation strategy is that the influence of climate change is hardly manageable because local processes such as overfishing or pollution reduce reef resilience prior to climate change driven impacts.
Therefore, West and Salm (2003) suggested identifying areas with low exposure to climate threats and reducing human impact on these particular regions (section 1.6). This would assure the potential for corals to persist in “refugia” and resist bleaching in times of changing climate (Glynn 2000; Riegl and Piller 2003). Current conservation strategies take into account reef resilience assessments during climate change in order to define management priorities (Obura and Grimsditch 2009; Maynard et al. 2010). McClanahan et al. (2012) recently proposed an evidence-based framework for the identification of climate change resilience of coral reefs to define conservation priorities. This novel framework includes the measurement of 11 key factors selected by perceived importance, empirical evidence, and feasibility of measurement (McClanahan et al. 2012). Rau et al.
(2012) go one step further and encourage marine science and management communities to evaluate actively all marine management strategies, including unconventional ones such as shading of local reefs from solar radiation during increased thermal stress (Jones et al.
1998; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Jones et al. 2008), low-voltage direct current, which has been proposed to stimulate coral growth (Sabater and Yap 2002; Goreau et al. 2004;
Sabater and Yap 2004), and wave- or tidal powered artificial upwelling (Kirke 2003;
Hollier et al. 2011). In times of dramatic climate change, our hope lies in the most resilient reefs and the increase of reef resilience through management actions, which should, therefore, be considered as essential conservation priorities.
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