Research works relevant to the agricultural land suitability is explored. This chapter made the compilation of the works carried out by researchers in different parts of the globe. It is very important part of the research work to make comparative assessment of the related work done in following chapters. It gives logical explanation to make conclusion through the appropriate discussion over the defined theme. Excerpts of the reviewed literature relevant to the present research work have been systematically cited. Moreover this chapter aims at presenting results of various works to readers to have clear picture over research theme and understand in wider dimension.
In Nepalese perspectives, land is the important property and is potential economic resources where all the development activities are concentrated. Economy of Nepal is predominantly based on agriculture and majority of population depends on agricultural occupation.
Therefore, it requires to carry long term scientific land use planning and to implement for the balanced, multi-dimensional and sustainable development of the country on the basis of physical features, composition, quantity and capability of the land (Oli, 2001).
2.1 Land resources
2.1.1 Definition
FAO (1993) defined land is an area of the earth’s surface, including all elements of the physical and biological environment that influences land use. Land comprises the physical environment including climate, relief, soils, hydrology and vegetation, to the extent that these influence potential for land use (FAO, 1976). Indeed, land is an essential natural resource, both for the survival and prosperity of humanity, and for the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems. Over millennia, people have become progressively more expert in exploiting land resources for their own ends. The limits on these resources are shown up while human demands on land are very large (FAO, 1995).
Land has been defined in varieties of ways by different researchers and organisations working in the field of agriculture and land reforms. It includes the results of past and present human activities e.g., reclamation from the sea, vegetation clearance and also adverse results, like soil salinization. Purely economic and social characteristics, however, are not included in the concept of land; these form part of the economic and social context
(FAO, 1976; Dent and Young, 1981). Land is not the same everywhere; it is, self-evidently, the other focus of land-use planning. Capital, labour, management skills and technology can be moved to where they are needed, land can not be moved and different areas posses different opportunities and also different management problems. Reliable information about land resource is thus essential for the land use planning (FAO, 1993). As definition of land is concerned, soil, climate, relief and hydrology, etc are incorporated as key words. Socio-economic and demographic parameter are not taken as an integral part of the definition. Thus it could say that land refers not only to soil but also landform, climate, hydrology, vegetation and fauna, together with land improvements such as terraces and drainage works. An other definition of land adapted by land degradation is that as a delineable area of the earth's terrestrial surface, embracing all attributes of the biosphere above or below this surface, including those of the near surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps, the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater and geo-hydrological reserves, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc.) (IDWG/LUP, 1994).
However FAO (1995) for the first time, put forward the complete definition of land incorporating socio-economic aspects as well. Land resources consist of two main categories:
1. Natural land resources without any effort made through human activities
2. Land resources created including the product of human activities such as dike and plodders (Dent and Young, 1981)
At the same time basic functions performed by land to support of the human being and other terrestrial ecosystems had numerically presented as follows (FAO, 1995):
Provision of biological habitats for plants, animals and micro-organisms and provides physical space for settlements, industry and recreation;
A store of wealth for individuals, groups, or a community through production of food, fiber, fuel or other biotic materials for human use;
Co-determinant in the global energy balance and the global hydrological cycle, which provides both a source and a sink for greenhouse gases;
Storehouse of minerals and raw materials for human use with regulation of the storage and flow of surface water and groundwater and buffer, filter or modifier for chemical pollutants;
Storage and protection of evidence from the historical or pre-historical record (fossils, evidence of past climates, archaeological remains, etc);
Concept of land is very vague and agricultural land is only a part of this pocket cultivation and agricultural production activities are act to be carried out. In this piece the cultivation and production process impact to land resources causes to change. Land and soil is two completely different concepts, but sometime it is very confused when only concerning to the agriculture activities. Land has a much broader meaning than soil and soil is indeed a part of the land and soil quality is a subset of land quality (Kavetskiy et al, 2003). Suitability fundamentally starts with soil and land use planning accepts the soil categorization for specific purpose. In the process of land suitability evaluation and land use planning, these concepts must be clearly distinguished.
Systematic vegetable production has barely been in existence for more than three decades in Nepal. In the late 1950s local Asian varieties of mustard, pumpkin and raddish were seen in and around the Kathmandu Valley. Then, with the establishment of the Vegetable Development Division (VDD) in 1972, technical activities like indigenous and exotic germplasm collection, variety testing and seed production were initiated. In the last 10 years more serious attention has been given to identifying farmer’s problems, and using trials and experiments in an attempt to solve them. More recently yield performance trials, and agronomical, fertilizer and plant protection experiments for all important summer and winter vegetables; have been conducted at all horticulture farms (NARC, 1988). Research on land suitability assessment has been initiated in the name of identification of potential packet areas for the different types of crops. They have been categorized into highly potential area, medium potential area and low potential areas for specific crops. Such activities have to be done manually using set of plant parameters and climatic background. Application of GIS has later been started.
2.1.2 Land use and land tenure
Land use is characterized by the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it (Di Gregorio and Jansen, 1998;
FAO, 1997). It is a series of operations on land, carried out by man, with the intention to obtain products and/or benefits through using land resources. According to Huizing et.al.
is the human activities of natural environment (as defined by Di Dregorio and Janse, 1998 and FAO a report).
In Nepal, land use refers to the major classification of the use of the different parcels of land in the holdings. All land operated by agricultural holdings are classified as either agricultural land or non-agricultural land. The total numbers of all agricultural holdings in the country has been increasing (CBS 2005). On the other hand, non-agricultural land are those lands which are part of the holdings comprise woodland or forest (not commercial) and all other land, unused and undeveloped but potentially productive land and all other land in the holding not elsewhere classified including the home of the holder.
In definition of land use, it establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of human being in their environment. The concept of land use is often considered a relatively stable subject related mainly to the use to which the land, in a certain region at a certain time, is put (Jamal, 2003). Land use is the result of a continuous field of tension created between available resources and human needs and acted upon by human efforts (Vink, 1975). The types of land use considered are limited to those, which appear to be relevant under general physical, economic and social conditions prevailing in an area. These kinds of land use serve as the subject of land evaluation. They may consist of major kinds of land use or land utilization types (FAO, 1976). FAO (1993) also defined that land use is the management of land to meet human needs including rural land use, for example, agriculture, forestry, wildlife and also urban and industry land use, for example, city, towns, industrial zones, etc.
Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, fertility, plants and animals.
The land is owned by an individual, is said to be "hold" the land. Land tenure refers to arrangements or rights under which the holder holds or uses land for particular purpose. A holding may be operated under one or more tenure forms, with each parcel normally operated under one tenure form (FAO, 1995). Many land tenure systems allow people to use the same property for different purposes. In Nepal, land tenure refers to arrangements or rights under which the holders holds or uses the land of the holding. Land owned but rented out to other is not considered as part of the holding. In Nepal, while the average holding size is small, most of the holdings are owned. The ownership of the holdings under one form of tenure is estimated to be 2,939.6 thousand ha in 2001/02 (CBS 2006).
Leasing and renting are kinds of land tenure which is very essential for farmers. Land tenure security exits when an individual perceives that she or he rights to a piece of land on a continuous basis, free from imposition or interference from outside sources, as well as the ability to reap the benefits of labour and capital invested in the land, whether in use or upon transfer to another holders.
Nepalese agricultural economy still suffers from various infrastructural, institutional, technological and agro-climatic constraints. The land tenure system is of rural type like shared cropping which could not enhance the expected productivity. The overall national policy environment may require further improvement to satisfy the needs of sustainable agricultural development rational tenure systems. The land tenure system has resulted in substantial improvements in land use efficiency and agricultural output growth.
The terms of the major kind of land use and land use type are frequently mentioned in the farming system, land suitability evaluation and land use planning, very much. A major kind of land use is a major subdivision of rural land use, such as rainfed agriculture, irrigated agriculture, grassland, forestry, etc. Major kinds of land use are usually considered in land evaluation studies of a qualitative or reconnaissance nature (FAO, 1976).
In land use classification the land utilization types (LUT) are not a categorical level but refer to any defined use below the level of the major kind of land use. It consists of a set of technical specifications in a given physical, economic and social setting for specific plant or crop patterns. This may be the current environment or a future betting modified by major land improvement, e.g. an irrigation and drainage scheme (FAO, 1976). A LUT is a kind of land use described or defined in a degree of detail greater than that of a major kind of land use (FAO, 1976). In detailed or quantitative land suitability evaluation studies, the kinds of land use considered will usually consist of land utilization types. They are described with as much detail and precision as the purpose requires. LUT has categorically presented by FAO for land with specific facilities of input. In the context of irrigated agriculture, a land utilization type refers to a crop, crop combination or cropping system with specified irrigation and management methods in a defined technical and socio-economic setting. In the context of rainfed agriculture, a land utilization type refers to a crop, crop combination or cropping system with a specified technical and socio-economic setting. A forest land
utilization type consists of technical specifications in a given physical, economic and social setting. Attributes of land utilization types in general include data or assumptions on (FAO, 1976) as:
Produce, including goods (e.g., crops, livestock timber), services (e.g., recreational facilities) or other benefits (e.g., wildlife conservation);
Market orientation, including whether towards subsistence or commercial production;
Capital intensity;
Labour intensity;
Power sources;
Technical knowledge and attitudes of land users;
Technology employed;
Infrastructure requirements;
Size and configuration of land holdings;
Land tenure, the legal or customary manner in which rights to land are held, by individuals or groups;
Income levels, expressed per capita, per unit of production or per unit area;
However during the land suitability evaluation process, not of all attributes above are equally concerned, the selection of attributes and detailed description level depends on current land use conditions of region as well as limitations, requirements and goals of different land evaluation projects.
2.1.3 Farming systems for vegetables (VFS)
Farming systems involve a complex combination of inputs, managed by farm households but influenced by environmental, political, economic, institutional and social factors (NRI, 2002). The functioning of any individual farm system is strongly influenced by the external environment, including policies & institutions, markets and information linkages, etc. (FAO, 2000). Whereas, a farming system is defined as a population of individual farm systems that have broadly similar resource bases, enterprise patterns, household livelihoods, constraints, and for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate. The population of individual farm systems means that they may include the major kind of land use and land utilization type or specific crops and animals. Farming system relates the whole
the specific elements in farming system. Farming system is a complicated interwoven mesh of soil, plants, animals, implements, workers, other inputs, and environmental influences held together and manipulated by the farmers. There are several types of farming system as introduced by Kavetskiy et.al. (2003) as
a. Intensive farming system b. Extensive farming system c. Traditional farming system d. Conventional farming system e. Integrated farming system f. Organic farming system
Figure: 2.1 Relationship of Farming system
If vegetable farming is ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just, culturally appropriate, long-term production, humane and based on a holistic scientific approach, it is considered as sustainable vegetable farming (FAO, 2004). Sustainable vegetable farming system is associated with good practices related to people cantered development, sustainable livelihood, sound agro-ecological practices, sustainable forestry system, community based natural resources management, participatory policy development, indigenous farming system, fair labour condition, good agricultural practises, equitable access to water and others.
Vegetable production systems in Nepal vary in land form, farm size and intention of cultivation. The production processes includes preparing seed for sowing, growing transplant, transplanting, direct seeding, land preparation, field management practice, cropping pattern and water management. The vegetable production in upland areas, declines faster compared to the decreasing size of the cultivation areas. This is mainly due to (1)
decrease of quality seeds, (2) cultivation area expanded into the forest, (3) top soil erosion decreasing land fertility and (4) land degradation caused by non-conservation agriculture system, which adopt cultivation by land structure not by contour (Saptana, 2004).
Figure: 2.2 Land utilization type and vegetable cropping system in Kathmandu
2.1.4 Vegetable production in hilly areas in the subtropics
From the competitiveness point of view, most of the vegetable farming system (VFS) activities have competitive and comparative advantages. The farming system of potatoes and tomatoes has the highest competitiveness providing the application of multi culture cropping pattern. However, the category with no competitiveness is VFS of headed cabbages in Indonesia. This is explained by: (1) low market values of land for the cultivation, resulted from price and policy distortion, depresses further the rental rate, (2) extensive usage of chemical input, much higher than the recommended one, (3) high cost per unit; (4) low productivity level and (5) limited farmers’ accessibility to the market prices (Arsanti, 2008).
Arsanti (2008) further conclude that the development of the VFS will be optimized, and highly profitable with a competitive competence in all aspects especially in financial, economic and sustainability providing the cultivation of potatoes by using multi culture cropping pattern as the first priority and monoculture with the different crop along year or fallow as a second priority.
Sub-tropics and Asian region has still not much developed method of farming system involving multiple sources. In order to sustain the VFS in these regions, it might have many difficulties facing regarding the natural conditions, socio-economic conditions, infrastructure and the markets. Case studies from Vietnam, Nepal, Thailand and Malaysia (Jansen et al.,
1995) clearly establish the private profitability of peri-urban vegetable production but are less specific about its communal benefits. On an average financial returns were greater than for cereal production but also much more variable (FAO, 2004).
Among the horticultural sub-sectors, vegetable production increased at the fastest rate, especially during the last decade. Although the growth in the vegetable sector in developing countries was high, almost equal to the highest growing livestock sector in these countries, expansion in this sector was exceptionally high in China, especially during 1995-2004.
Production growth in horticulture in developed countries was small during the overall period, and was even negative for fruits in the later period. Most horticultural commodities are commercially produced for the market (except from home-garden), which creates substantial demand for marketing activities. In developing countries, the share of vegetable area in the farming system remained stagnant over the period. Most of the developing countries like Nepal are still adopting indigenous vegetable species which is constraints for fast expansion of the horticulture industry.
The horticultural farming as an industry is responding to environmental challenges through a number of mechanisms, including:
• Industry strategic planning;
• Adoption of management practice;
• Development and implementation of Codes of Practice;
• Research and development; and
• Interaction with State government groups.
Ecological requirements of crop
Land is always productive to specific crop with defined set of input, where selection of the crop to be planted is made considering minimum input is applied. Better the suitability of land less input is needed; where as less suitable land requires high input for production so that output cost is affected heavily. In this case suitability does not address reasonably. Input for the cropping is based on the agronomical and physiological need of specific crops.
Ecological requirements of crop are the needs of an individual crop or cultivar for an appropriate development and yield. Plant growth requires a reasonable moisture and nutrient supply, linked to a sufficient rooting depth and to a proper energy regime for photosynthesis and biomass production (Verheye, 1996). FAO (1976) defined that the requirements of the
land utilization type or crop refer to the set of land qualities that determine the production and management conditions of a kind of land use. Cropping system or cultivation system is the cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology which determine their cultivation. The cropping system is subsystem of a farming system (FAO, 1996) and is illustrated as figure 2.1 and 2.2.
land utilization type or crop refer to the set of land qualities that determine the production and management conditions of a kind of land use. Cropping system or cultivation system is the cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology which determine their cultivation. The cropping system is subsystem of a farming system (FAO, 1996) and is illustrated as figure 2.1 and 2.2.