5.2 Strengths, Limitations, and Implications
5.2.2 Limitations and Implications
Although the findings from the three studies support all the hypothesized functional relationships between anger and risky decision making, there are several potential limiting factors of this dissertation which should be taken into account as starting points for future research.
The first limitation relates to the student sample. All the samples in these three studies are comprised of university students, which may be more similar across cultures than members of the general population (Boiger et al., 2014). Therefore, our findings may underestimate cultural differences in the effects of anger on risk-taking. Future research could increase the diversity of the participant samples. One potential direction would be to increase the age diversity of the sample, as it is still unclear how the strategies to process the emotional information of human beings vary over the life span and between cultures (Mata, Schooler, & Rieskamp, 2007).
Second, these studies relied on samples from a limited cross-cultural scope. This dissertation was conducted with participants from two countries, namely Germany and China, which represent a Western European culture and an East Asian culture, respectively. These cultures are known to differ on a variety of dimensions, among which the differentiation between individualism and collectivism is probably the most prominent (Hofstede, 2001;
Triandis, 1994, 1995). Thus, comparing samples differing on this dimension in order to explore cultural influences might be reasonable. Still, one has to keep in mind that our conclusions are drawn based on samples from only two countries. However, there is evidence from the current studies that explicitly speaks to the interpretability of the reported findings.
Although differences in mean levels of the variables of interest, such as trust beliefs and emotions, are reported in the literature and correspondingly in our studies (Mesquita &
Walker, 2003), the functional relationships were consistent between the two samples, in line with the hypotheses. This speaks for their cross-cultural generalizability. Thus, by comparing a German and a Chinese sample, a first valuable step towards testing these relationships’
cross-cultural generalizability has been made, and further replications should be conducted with samples from other countries.
Given the importance of understanding how specific emotions influence risky decision making, the third limitation relates to the limited target emotions in this dissertation.
This dissertation only focuses on anger, providing evidence for the mechanisms by which anger influences risk-taking. Based on the Appraisal Tendency Framework, each specific emotion might have different impacts on judgments and decisions due to their link to emotion-specific appraisal tendencies. As a unique and complex emotion, anger is one of the most frequently experienced emotions in our lives, thus it merits special attention in the study of risk-taking (Litvak et al., 2010). Therefore, this dissertation mainly focuses on understanding the ways anger influences humans’ risky decision making. Previous research has mainly focused on the role of emotion in lottery-based risk contexts, whereas limited research has investigated its role in person-based risk contexts. Studies II and III of this dissertation have taken a first step in exploring the impact of emotion on one type of person-based risk-taking, trust behavior. Future research should further investigate whether the findings from this dissertation can be generalized to other emotional contexts. For instance, future research could investigate whether discrete emotions such as anger (high certainty, associated approach motivation) and fear (low certainty, associated avoidance motivation) differentially affect risk-taking in more diverse contexts. Furthermore, future research could also investigate whether different sources of a single emotion (for example, anger caused by another person and anger caused by the self) could differentially influence risk-taking.
5.4 Conclusion
For a long time, the model of neoclassical economics assumed that decision-makers followed rationality to make their decisions, ignoring the role of emotion (Simon, 1983;
Williamson, 1993). However, increasing evidence has indicated that emotions may have a strong impact on risky decision making (Lerner et al., 2015). Therefore, this dissertation focused on investigating how anger, one of human beings’ most frequently experienced emotions, influences risky decision making. This dissertation extends the current research in this field by investigating the effects of anger on two different types of risk – lottery-based risk and person-based risk – and by using two different methods to arouse anger. There are three major contributions of this dissertation. From a methodological perspective, a new experimental paradigm to induce anger was developed and successfully tested in two cultural contexts. Furthermore, this study also provides empirical evidence that incidental anger influences not only lottery-based risk-taking but also person-based risk-taking, like trust behavior. Finally, the cross-cultural generalizability of the reported findings is demonstrated by including two samples from two cultural backgrounds. In sum, Ralph Waldo Emerson described anger as “that powerful internal force that blows out the light of reason”; one can see that although it is classified as a negative emotion, it drives people to make optimistic predictions of their likelihood of success and to trust others more. It is outside the scope of this dissertation to draw conclusions about whether the effect of anger on human decision making is good or bad, so rather I would like to suggest that many decision outcomes associated with anger should be investigated in diverse situations. As a unique emotion, anger should not be simply clustered with other negative emotions when making predictions about human decisions and behaviors.
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