LEPTOSPIRA AND ENVIRONMENT

There are several environmental key factors that increase Leptospirosis risk in animals and humans such as:

a) rodent exposure; b) wildlife exposure; c) soil and water and d) management (Barwick et al., 1997) (Figure 2.12.1). The link between Leptospira and water sources is very evident (Corwin et al., 1990;

Katz et al., 1991; Aydemir et al., 2007). Water can be directly contaminated by a large variety of animals or human excreta or indirectly by soil surface wash (floods, rainfall, run-off, etc.) (Manciuc et al., 2007). Here is the place to mention a new report onLeptospira interroganscell-binding activityin vitro, attributable to the attachment of proteoglycans (PGs) to a cell’s glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains, both shed by infected individuals in urine, making the transition from mammalian host to environment (soil and water) and vice versa possible (Breineret al., 2009). Numerous cases involving human contact with water contaminated sources have been reported comprising athletes, adventure tourists, military and swimmers (Jackson et al., 1993: Bolandet al., 2004; Aokiet al., 2001; Tunbridgeet al., 2001; Hadad et al., 2006; Lettieri et al., 2004; Stephan et al., 2000). Canoe race participants and triathlon athletes were identified as having contractedLeptospirain the Liffey river, Dublin, Ireland. Investigation of both

cases revealed that direct contact and ingestion of contaminated water increase the risk of contracting Leptospiroidosis. In the canoe race case, abundant rainfall coupled with hydroelectric water release may have contributed to the outbreak (Bolandet al., 2004). Truebaet al.(2004) showed experimentally that L. interrogansserovarcanicola can survive (based on motility test) for 110 days in distilled water (pH 7.2) and 347 days when incubated in a semi-solid medium (0.5% purified agarose in distilled water -pH 7.2), on the other hand when incubated in saline it survived only 21 days (Truebaet al., 2002). Another study supports these findings, revealing that salinity critically impairsLeptospira’ssurvival ability in sea water (Khairani-Bejo et al., 2004). In this context, it should be mentioned that Gill et al. (1985) performing aLeptospiraseroconversion survey among fish farm workers, reported that fish farming has a moderate risk for this pathogen; however in their case, no data were presented on water salinity (fresh or sea water), which may impact the pathogen’s survival and explain their mostly negative results. In viscous semi-solid medium, Leptospira cells form aggregates indicating on the mechanisms by which this pathogen can survive for prolonged periods of time in natural aqueous environments as a part of its lifecycle. Ristowet al.(2008) published an additional potential survival mechanism forLeptospirabased on biofilm formation “that is consistent with the life of saprophytic strains in water and may help pathogenic strains to survive in environmental habitats and to colonize the host”. Pathogen transmission is also water-associated in cases of catastrophic events such as floods or hurricanes. Several studies showed that floods, through soil cover and wash, can transmit Leptospira to humans and animals especially when they live in close proximity to inundated areas (Anonymous, 2006; Vanasco et al., 2002; Gaynor et al., 2007). Sanders et al. (1999) found an increase in laboratory cases following a hurricane episode. Soil environment may also support the growth and survival ofLeptospiraespecially if they are hygroscopic, euthrophic and close to neutral pH (Maksimenkova and Karpachevskii, 1985;

Yanget al., 1994). Wet soil is also a source of contamination forLeptospira(Yanget al., 1994).

Environmental Aspects of Zoonotic Diseases 84

Sea shore, with its wet sandy composition is such an environment where many animals dwelling near freshwater estuaries (including wastewater spills) increases the potential for Leptospirosis transmission to humans and domestic animals. Cameron et al. (2008) studied pinnipeds population, using advanced molecular methods (PCR), for Leptospira infection as a potential source for epizootic, enzootic, and zoonotic spread of leptospirosis in a marine environment. According to these authors, it seems that human recreational activity, estuaries outfall, rodents and the close contact of infected animals are the main vectors for the spread of Leptospirosis among marine animals. Ganozaet al.(2006) surveyed urban and rural populations in the Peruvian Amazon for prevalence of pathogenic Leptospira interrogansserovar icterohaemorrhagiae. This pathogen was isolated only in samples from urban slum market areas, gutter water and human isolates but not in rural areas, suggesting a specific mode of transmission from rats to humans in dirty and densely populated urban areas. Similar results were obtained by Pereira and Andrade (1990) in a slum area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and by Scialfaet al.(2010) in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Human proximity to water sources was shown also to contribute to wildlife infection withL. interrogans.

In the United States, two otter populations, one from an area of low human population density (Prince William Sound, Alaska) and a second one from one of high human population density (San Juan Islands, Washington State), were studied by indirect immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) test for seroprevalence against L. interrogans (Gaydos et al., 2007). The absence of a seroprevalence shift in Alaska’s otters advocates that life in proximity to excessive human density and its association with agricultural activities, domestic animals and rodent populations might enhance river otter exposure toL. interrogans.

2.12.2 REFERENCES

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Aoki, T., Koizumi, N. & Watanabe, H. (2001) A case of leptospirosis probably caused by drinking contaminated well-water after an earthquake.Jpn. J. Infect. Dis.54, 243–244.

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Corwin, A., Ryan, A., Bloys, W., Thomas, R., Deniega, B. & Watts, D. (1990) A waterborne outbreak of leptospirosis among United States military personnel in Okinawa, Japan.Int J Epidemiol,19, 743–748.

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Gaydos, J.K., Conrad, P.A., Gilardi, K.V.K., Blundell, G.M., & Ben-David, M. (2007) Does human proximity affect antibody prevalence in marine-foraging river otters (Lontra canadensis)?J. Wildl. Dis.,43, 116–123.

Gaynor, K., Katz, A.R., Park, S.Y., Nakata, M., Clark, T.A., & Effler, P.V. (2007) Leptospirosis On Oahu: an outbreak associated with flooding of a university campus.Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.,76, 882–885.

Gill, O.N., Coghlan, J.D. & Calder, I.M. (1985) The risk of leptospirosis in United Kingdom fish farm workers. Results from a 1981 serological survey.J Hyg (Lond)94, 81–86.

Hadad, E., Pirogovsky, A., Bartal, C., Gilad, J., Barnea, A.et al.(2006) An outbreak of Leptospirosis among Israeli troops near the Jordan river.Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.,74, 127–131.

Jackson, L.A., Kaufmann, A.F., Adams, W.G., Phelps, M.B., Andreasen, C.et al.(1993) Outbreak of leptospirosis associated with swimming.Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.12, 48–54.

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Maksimenkova, I. A. & Karpachevskii, L.O. (1985) Characteristics of soils of natural sites for leptospiroses and pseudotuberculosis and enteric Yersinia infection pathogens.Pochvovedenie10, 107–115.

Manciuc, D.C., Dorobat, C., Hurmuzache, M. & Nicu, M. (2007) Leptospirosis: clinical and environmental aspects of the Iasi county.Environ. Eng. Manage. J.6, 133–136.

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Scialfa, E., Bolpe, J., Bardon, J.C., Ridao, G., Gentile, J. & Gallicchio, O. (2010) Isolation of Leptospira interrogans from suburban rats in Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.Rev. Argent. Microbiol.42, 126–128.

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Chapter 2.13 Listeriosis

[LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES]

Listeria monocytogenesis a gram-positive rod, facultative anaerobe and motile bacterium. It is perhaps the most virulent foodborne agent causing 20–30% fatality in infected people (Ramaswamy et al., 2007).

Infection by L. monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis that manifests itself in humans as:

septicemia, meningitis (or meningoencephalitis), encephalitis, corneal ulcer, pneumonia, and intrauterine or cervical infections in pregnant women, which may result in spontaneous abortion. Beside infected humans, a large variety of animals can excrete the pathogen in feces, subsequently spreading it in soil, plants and surface water (Table 2.13.1).