Public Opinion
2. The Issue of Terrorism and Radicalism in Strategic Documents in Poland and Spain
Given the space limitations for this article, we shall not engage in an analysis of the body of legislation addressing the struggle with terrorism and radicalism� Instead, we will focus on national defense strategies and other strategic documents that are a sort of emanation of the attitude taken by public authorities toward such threats� Furthermore, it is worth adding that neither in Poland nor in Spain is there one overarching piece of legislation regulating the issue, and laws regulating anti-terrorist efforts are primarily contained in Penal Codes and other statutes regulating the activities of particular services�
In Poland, during the period 2001–2015, three national security strategies were in effect: the first was adopted in 2003, the second in 2007, and the third in 2014� Here, it is worthy to recall the first such strategy, adopted in 2000, before the attack on the World Trade Center� It was the result of Poland’s accession to the NATO in 1999� During the same period, a strategic conception for the Alli-ance was developed� However, Poland did not make use of its potential to affect
Security Strategies of Poland and Spain versus Public Opinion 141
the NATO strategy, and its internal document was adopted around a year after it joined the organization, based on its conception� This was also a mistake if we take into consideration that, during a year of membership in NATO, Poland followed a strategy developed in conditions of strategic independence� In Stanisław Koziej’s opinion, this was the result of habits formed during the years of membership in the Warsaw Pact, when this strategic alliance was superior to national strategies�1
When examining more closely Polish security strategies, it may be observed that the issue of terrorism is present, but it is not perceived as one of the primary threats� It is generally listed along with other asymmetrical threats such as organ-ized crime, arms proliferation or “failing states�” There is a fear about the secu-rity of secret information which can be the target of interest of not only foreign intelligence services but also terrorist and extremist organizations�2 Emphasis is placed on the necessity of cooperation in the fight against terrorism between the armed forces and special services, on the one hand, and civilian authorities, on the other�3 What is also underscored is the responsibility resting with the armed forces and intelligence services in the context of anti-terrorist activities�4 Because of Poland’s membership in NATO, the country is a participant in the struggle against international terrorism, which does expose it to the threat of attacks�5 The threat of terrorism associated with organized crime is also present in Poland considering its status as a transitive country�6 Counterterrorism is also a part of the European Union’s strategy�7 The issue of protecting the health of citizens
1 S� Koziej, A� Brzozowski, 25 lat polskiej strategii bezpieczeństwa, „Bezpieczeństwo Na-rodowe” II no� 30, 2014, pp� 13–14�
2 Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2003, Rada Ministrów Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, accessed 8 February 2016, pp� 2–3�
3 Ibid� p� 5�
4 Ibid� pp� 9–11; Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2007, Rada Ministrów Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, point 95, 97, 99, 102, pp� 23–25 available at http://www�msz�gov�pl/resource/7d18e04d-8f23-4128-84b94f426346a112, accessed 8 February 2016; Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2014, Rada Ministrów Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, point 74, pp� 31 available at https://www�
bbn�gov�pl/ftp/SBN%20RP�pdf, accessed 8 February 2016�
5 Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2003…op�cit�, p� 6; Stra-tegia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2007…op�cit�, point 34, p� 9;
Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2014…op�cit�, point 55, p� 25�
6 Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2014…op�cit�, point 36, p� 9�
7 Ibid� point 47: 13)�
Anna Sroka and Katarzyna Trofimowicz 142
through combating radioactive, chemical and biological terrorism has also been addressed�8 References to terrorist threats in the strategies of 2003 and 2007 are diffuse, generally located alongside other threats or in reference to the tasks of various security services� Terrorism, as a subject in and of itself, has not been focused on, being perceived as a distant threat�
In the 2014 strategy, the issue of terrorism appears in combination with ex-tremism, radical groups and radicalization of behaviors, all of which should be counteracted�9 Extremism is assessed as a threat, particularly in situations when it is associated with other asymmetrical threats such as the proliferation of weap-ons of mass destruction10 and organized crime�11 The issue of cyberthreats is also brought up, including cyberterrorism�12 It should be observed that in the 2014 strategy, more space was devoted to terrorism and extremism than in previous documents� They remain classified not as primary threats, but rather as one of many potential threats� However, attention is clearly paid to the issue, and it is not taken lightly� This is no doubt associated with the growth of the so-called Islamic State, frequent terrorist attacks around the world and the fact that, while Poland has yet to experience such an attack, Polish citizens did perish in attacks in Madrid, London, New York and Bali�13 However, consideration is given to the potential for both domestic and international terrorist acts by the so-called “lone wolves” or small groups�14
We may observe a similar approach to the issue of terrorism in the Strategy for Development of the Polish National Security System 2022, adopted by a resolu-tion of the Council of Ministers on April 9th, 2013� In this document, terrorism is presented as one of several threats, including the proliferation of weapons of
8 Ibid� point 136: 34)�
9 Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2014…op�cit�, point 19, 32, 83, pp� 14, 19, 24�
10 Ibid� point 28, p� 18�
11 Ibid� point 30, pp� 18–19�
12 Ibid� point 31, pp� 19�
13 J� Urbanowicz, 17 Polaków zginęło z rąk terrorystów islamskich podczas globalnej woj-ny z terroryzmem, Polskie Radio 2015, available at http://www�polskieradio�pl/5/3/
Artykul/1402579,17-Polakow-zginelo-z-rak-terrorystow-islamskich-podczas-global-nej-wojny-z-terroryzmem, accessed at January 2016; Narodowy Program Antyterrory-styczny na lata 2015–2019, Uchwała nr 252, Rada Ministrów Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2014, p� 10, available at www�monitorpolski�gov�pl/mp/2014/1218/M2014000121801�
pdf, accessed 8 February 2016�
14 Strategia bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2014…op�cit�, point 55, p� 25�
Security Strategies of Poland and Spain versus Public Opinion 143
mass destruction, organized crime and cyberattacks� It is also mentioned in the context of armed conflicts around the world, and the problem of “failed states�” It is described as a threat that does not affect the territory of Poland as much as the country’s citizens staying in politically unstable regions, and soldiers participating in international missions� However, responsibilities under alliances do increase the level of the threat within the country as well� Counteracting terrorism is held to be one of the tasks for the special services, and the authors of the strategy direct particular attention to the issue of weapons of mass destruction in the hands of terrorists�15 In this strategy, the emphasis has been placed on the military aspect of national security; this is associated with the fact that it comprises one of the documents making up Poland’s long-term strategy of linking security policy with policy in the sphere of social and economic development� Other documents ad-dress issues of energy, social and ecological security, together forming a compre-hensive picture of national security� The Strategy for Development of the Polish National Security System 2022 is the implementation of the postulates from the 2007 security strategy, whose assumptions included the necessity of preparing, maintaining and improving the state’s security system, as well as long-and medi-um-term development strategies�16
Another document worthy of mention is the 2013 White Paper on National Security of the Republic of Poland� This document draws attention to the diffusion of anti-terrorist legislation, as well as of means for counteracting terrorism�17 This is significant, as the White Paper was prepared on the basis of the Strategic Review of National Security, and contains the key conclusions and recommendations re-garding Poland’s national security policy, including improvements in the security system�18 In spite of the continuing minimal terrorist threat in Poland, the country’s authorities are aware of the problem; this awareness is expressed in the National Anti-terrorism Program for 2015–2019, adopted by the Council of Ministers in De-cember 2014� It contains a broader diagnosis of the phenomenon of terrorism than
15 Strategia rozwoju systemu bezpieczeństwa narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2022, Rada Ministrów Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, 2013, pp� 3, 10–12, 23, 33, 49 available at https://www�bbn�gov�pl/ftp/dok/01/strategia_rozwoju_systemu_bezpieczenstwa_na-rodowego_rp_2022�pdf, accessed 8 February 2016�
16 Ibid� p� 4�
17 Ibid� pp� 64–65�
18 Biała Księga Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2013, Biuro Bezpie-czeństwa Narodowego, Warszawa 2013, p� 9, available at http://www�ank�gov�pl/komu-nikaty/2013/07/03/biala-ksiega-bezpieczenstwa-narodowego-rp, accessed 1 February 2016�
Anna Sroka and Katarzyna Trofimowicz 144
in the previously discussed documents, taking into account both the national and international dimensions, as well as offering a broad review of the anti-terrorism system functioning within Poland, a definition of terrorism-related events, a list of legal regulations addressing terrorism, and a description of the anti-terrorist system in place� We can also browse a presentation of Poland’s contribution to international cooperation in the fight against terrorism�19 The National Anti-terrorism Program is the executive document in relation to the Strategy for Development of the Polish National Security System� The last document that should be mentioned is the Polish Cybersecurity Doctrine, from 2015� This document includes an identification of terrorist and extremist organizations as sources of cyberthreats, and cyberspace is defined as a field where such organizations can be active�20 The starting point for this doctrine can be found in the determinations of the national security strategy for cyberspace, as well as the Policy for the Protection of Poland’s Cyberspace and the EU Cyber Security Strategy�21
The Spanish authorities have adopted two national security strategies to date, in 2011 and 2013� Previously, strategic issues were regulated primarily in National Security Directives issued every 4 years, beginning in 1992�22 One of the subjects discussed, as can be supposed, was terrorism� Already in 2003, the Strategic Se-curity Review observed that following the attack on the World Trade Center, terrorism had emerged as the most prominent threat to national security, and the fight against it was a key issue in the strategy for organizing international secu-rity�23 In the 2004 National Defense Directive, the first issued during the period under review, emphasis is placed on the asymmetrical dimension of terrorism, and on the fact that when faced with threats of this nature, a traditional military advantage does not play any significant role;24 however, in the next Directive from
19 Narodowy Program Antyterrorystyczny…op�cit�, pp� 8–34�
20 Doktryna Cyberbezpieczeństwa Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Biuro Bezpieczeństwa Na-rodowego, Warszawa 2015, pp� 5, 14, available at https://www�bbn�gov�pl/ftp/dok/01/
DCB�pdf, accessed 1 February 2016�
21 Ibid� p� 7�
22 Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos, La Directiva de Defensa Nacional 2012, p� 2, available at http://www�ieee�es/Galerias/fichero/docs_analisis/2012/DIEEEA35-2012_
DDN_IEEE�pdf, accessed 1 February 2016�
23 Revisión Estratégica de la Defensa 2003, Ministerio de Defensa, pp� 39, available http://www�defensa�gob�es/Galerias/defensadocs/revision-estrategica�pdf, accessed 8 February 2016�
24 Directiva de Defensa Nacional 2004, Gobierno de España, pp� 1–2, available at http://
www�centredelas�org/images/stories/adjunts/510_ddn_2004�pdf, accessed 4 February 2016�
Security Strategies of Poland and Spain versus Public Opinion 145
2008 there is no mention of terrorism or radicalism�25 In turn, the 2012 Directive was criticized for failure to address the real threat of terrorism associated with jihad� Under this directive, Spain’s national security should be primarily based on alliances and membership in international organizations, while the primary threat cited is the economic crisis�26
The first Spanish security strategy, “Shared Responsibility,” was confirmed on June 24th, 2011�27 The second Spanish strategy currently in force, “Joint Project,”
was drafted in May 2013� These strategies are characterized by continuity in their content and identification of threats� In the new one, the definition of national security has been rendered more precise – for the first time it appears in an official Spanish document�28
Proceeding to the content of the national security strategy, it should be pointed out that a significant amount of space has been devoted to the issue of terrorism�
First and foremost, it is listed among the most important threats in both strategies�
Alongside reference to terrorism in conjunction with such threats as organized crime, cyberattacks, piracy and arms proliferation, this issue is given considera-tion in separate sub-chapters�29
It should be pointed out that this issue was given significant attention in the 2011 strategy, and apart from the general identification of the problem, both in-stitutional solutions and a strategy for action in the fight with the terrorist threat
25 Directiva de Defensa Nacional 2008, Gobierno de España, available at http://www�
armada�mde�es/ArmadaPortal/ShowBinaryServlet?nodePath=/BEA%20Repository/
Desktops/Portal/ArmadaEspannola/Pages/documentacion_reglamentos/07_direc- tiva_defensa_nacional/01_directiva_defensa_nacional_es/doc_01_directiva_defen-sa_nacional08//archivo, accessed 12 February 2016�
26 D� López Garrido, “El País” 10�08�2012, available at http://elpais�com/elpais/2012/08/07/
opinion/1344351717_982529�html, accessed 8 February 2016; Directiva de Defensa Nacional 2012, Presidencia del Gobierno, available at http://www�defensa�gob�es/Ga-lerias/defensadocs/directiva-defensa-nacional-2012�pdf, accessed 8 February 2016�
27 L� Mestres, The long road to Spanish security strategy, Notes Internacionals CIDOB, no� 39, 2011, p� 1�
28 Estrategia de Seguridad Nacional 2013: Un proyecto compartido, Presidencia del Go-bierno, available at http://www�lamoncloa�gob�es/documents/seguridad_1406connav egacionfinalaccesiblebpdf�pdf, accessed 8 February 2016, p� 5–6�
29 Ibid� pp� 25–26; Estrategia Española de Seguridad 2011: Una responsabilidad de todos, Gobierno de España, pp� 49–52, available at http://www�realinstitutoelcano�org/wps/
wcm/connect/c06cac0047612e998806cb6dc6329423/EstrategiaEspanol DeSeguridad�
pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=c06cac0047612e998806cb6dc6329423, accessed 8 February 2016�
Anna Sroka and Katarzyna Trofimowicz 146
are presented� Two types of terrorism are distinguished: the threat from ETA, and the threat from jihadist movements (Al Qaeda, Islamic State)� This threat is enhanced by such factors as participation in international missions, the presence of Islamic fundamentalist groups in Spain promoting radical ideas, including the reconstruction of the Islamic Al Andalus,30 proximity to the unsettled region of Maghreb, the existence of “failed states,” and the potential for immigrants coming to Spain to adopt radical ideologies, including second-generation immigrants� The war on terrorism is to be conducted through the following means: simplifying the exchange of information among security services, invocation of the EU solidar-ity clause (Art� 22 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union), the functioning of the National Centre for Coordination of Anti-terrorist Activities (since 2014 the Intelligence Centre for the War on Terrorism and Organized Crime), enhancements to the domestic judicial system and international judicial cooperation in terrorism-related cases, participation of the armed forces and all of public administration, increased financing and human resources, strengthening the National Intelligence Centre, development of a planned response to nuclear, radiological, biological and chemical attacks, improved transport security and greater effectiveness of external border controls, special penitentiary policy in cases of terrorism, and participation in international missions� However, it is emphasized that in spite of potential future attacks, terrorists do not have the capacity to destabilize the rule of law or democracy as such�31 Attention is also drawn to the fact that radical and extremist ideologies can intensify threats to national security�32
In the 2013 strategy, less attention is devoted to the issue of terrorism, with only a diagnosis of the threat offered� The Spanish government’s priority is to prevent terrorists from being able to conduct their activities� It is emphasized that the
30 Recordings from ISIS have appeared in recent days in which terrorists have discussed punishing Spaniards for driving muslims out of Spain, and have expressed the desire to rebuild the Islamic Al Andalus, F� Carrión, El IS advierte a Espana que “pagara muy caro” la expulsion de los musulmanes de Al Andalus, “El Mundo” 31�01� 2016, available at http://www�elmundo�es/internacional/2016/01/31/56adefc1268e3e5d0d8b4580�html, accessed 1 February 2016�
31 Estrategia Española de Seguridad 2011…op�cit�, pp� 49–52�
32 Ibid� pp� 38–39; R� Alonso Pascual, Ideologías radicales y no democráticas como po-tenciadores de riesgo para la seguridad nacional, “Cuaderno de Estrategia”, Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos, no� 159, 2013, pp� 229–268, available at http://www�
ieee�es/Galerias/fichero/cuadernos/CE_159_Potenciadores_de_Riesgo�pdf, accessed 1 February 2016�
Security Strategies of Poland and Spain versus Public Opinion 147
coordination of responses across all of the state services and society has led to the neutralization of ETA� The prime terrorist threat is perceived in the activities of jihadist groups, which take advantage of extensive technological capacities and the globalized nature of the contemporary world� Potential justifications for Spain as a terrorist target are listed, such as proximity to the failed states of the Sahel, and Spain’s role in the struggle against international terrorism� Spain’s experiences in this battle are referred to� A greater portion of the document is devoted to issues of energy, economic and cyber security�33
This last threat was the subject of separate documents, i�e� the National Cyber Security Strategy of 2013 and the National Energy Security Strategy of 2015�34 These documents constitute an elaboration of the national security strategy in the spheres of energy and cyber security� In recent years, these areas have become increasingly important, and will continue to do so� They have developed into very important elements of the national security picture, with cyber security evolv-ing into a particularly serious challenge considerevolv-ing the difficulty in predictevolv-ing the targets and impacts of cyberattacks, as well as the constant development of information technology�
Lastly, we may recall the National Maritime Security Strategy of 2013, impor-tant in view of Spain’s geographical location� Terrorism can also be a threat to the country’s stable maritime policy, as can piracy, illegal immigration by sea, illegal use of maritime resources, or the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction�
The hijacking of passenger ships or attacks on transport and navy vessels may be used later on to engage in attacks on land�35
33 Estrategia de Seguridad Nacional 2013: Un proyecto, op�cit�, pp� 25–26�
34 Estrategia de Ciberseguridad Nacional 2013, Presidencia del Gobierno, available at http://www�lamoncloa�gob�es/documents/20131332estrategiadeciberseguridadx�pdf, accessed 8 February 2016; Estrategia de Seguridad Energética Nacional 2015, Presiden-cia del Gobierno, available at http://www�lamoncloa�gob�es/serviciosdeprensa/notas-prensa/Documents/ESTRATEGIA%20DE%20SEGURIDAD%20ENERGÉTICA%20 NACIONAL%20(WEB)�pdf, accessed 1 February 2016�
35 Estrategia de Seguridad Marítima Nacional 2013, Presidencia del Gobierno, pp� 4, 12, 19, 24, available at http://www�ieee�es/Galerias/fichero/OtrasPublicaciones/Nacional/
Estrategia_Seguridad_Maritima_Nacional_2013�pdf, accessed 8 February 2016�
Anna Sroka and Katarzyna Trofimowicz 148