Historical and Spatial Development Analysis

92

2010 Global Cities Index.⁸⁴ Finally, Frankfurt ranked 7^th (2012) according to the International Financial Centres Development index.⁸⁵

early as since 3000 BC, but also in Roman times.⁸⁷ During the early middle Ages, it was already a permanently settled, considerably large city, whose importance particularly grew after Kaiser Charles the Great⁸⁸ built himself a royal court at the ‘Franconian Ford’. His son Ludwig⁸⁹ made Frankfurt the capital of the East Frankish Empire (Weidhaas, 2007: 12-13), built a larger palace and encircled the city with defensive walls and ditches in 838. The city’s official designation as coronation centre for German kings in 1147 (Weidhaas, 2007: 12) further stimulated economic growth and rising national importance, especially after the election and coronation of Frederick I Barbarossa king of Germany in 1152. The protective Staufenmauer wall that was completed by the end of the 12^th century (image 4.3) limited further urban expansions until the new outer wall-ring was finished in the early 14^th century (Picard, 2011: 7). Thus, similarly to other European cities of that time, restricted space within the fortification walls strongly influenced development of urban structures in medieval Frankfurt, which was characterized by narrow streets, irregular structure, and very high building density (images 4.3-4.5).

Image 4.4.

Frankfurt am Main before 1619: South-West view (detail)

Picture in the public domain. Merian, M.: Topographia Hassiae et Regionum Vicinarum. Die Beschreibung der Freien Reichsstadt Frankfurt am Main. Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org, 2014-01-08

During the 16^th century, Frankfurt profited from its high migration rates in economic, cultural and demographic terms mostly. The city was characterized by a great diversity of its inhabitants; about 10% were of Jewish origin, 10% were immigrants from Spanish Netherlands, and there was also a great deal of representatives of foreign trading houses and traders from northern Italy.⁹⁰ Followed by the invention of the printing press in nearby Mainz (Weidhaas,

87 During the Roman era, further land developments were, and a military camp was established around 83 AD. The oldest part of Frankfurt’s Altstadt called Römer, permanently settled probably in the 1st century, was built on a higher, dry portion of the Main river swampy area. The Roman history of Frankfurt ended in the year 259/260, with the retreat of the Roman border to the west bank of the Rhine. (City Portrait: History http://www.frankfurt.de/ 2012-10-07)

88 Kaiser Charles the Great (742(?)-814), also known as Charlemagne, king of the Franks and Lombards, and emperor of the Carolingian Empire.

89 Ludwig der Fromme or Louis the Pious (778-840) also called the Fair and the Debonaire; king of the Franks, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Aquitaine.

90 Maßstabssprung (1999): 11.

94

2007), science, innovation, education and culture progressed in a highly competitive atmosphere among the cities of the region. At that time, Frankfurt established the most important book fair in Germany (Weidhaas, 2007: 13) that by the end of the 17^th century became the most important book fair in Europe. However, in the period between 16^th and 17^th century, generally not many public planning was made, with the exception for the investments in transportation of goods infrastructure and fortification. There were also not many representative buildings erected during this period; instead, the existing ones were modernized and adapted.⁹¹ The tendency in the central parts of the city itself was rather towards further developing and upgrading the existing structures at the expense of spaciousness and comfort. Frankfurt of that time certainly had a rich variety of forms in culture of urban housing, as a consequence of rising immigration.

Image 4.5.

Frankfurt am Main in 1770, by Matthäus Merian

Picture in the public domain. Merian, M.: Francofurti ad moenum, urbis imperialis, electioni rom. regum atque imperatorum consecratae, emporiique tam germaniae. Quam totius europae celeberrimi, accuratio declinatio.

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org, 2014-01-08

Firm foundations for significant development that took place during the 19^th century were laid during almost five centuries of privileges as a free city-state; first within the Holy Roman Empire (Free Imperial City, until 1806) and later in the German Confederation (1815-1866).

Between these historical epochs, a new territorial organization occurred with the creation of

91 Maßstabssprung (1999): 11.

Grand Duchy of Frankfurt in 1810,⁹² when the city went through major structural changes. Until that point, most of the inhabitants lived within a small, enclosed area of approximately two square kilometres, while the zone outside the city walls, within the radius of 3-4 kilometres, was mostly used as agricultural land for many gardens and vineyards (so-called Gärtnereizone, Braun, 1977: 12). The first random urban sprawl was initiated by the final demolition of defensive walls in 1818 (Picard, 2011: 7; Braun, 1977: 10), supported by the rapid population growth that between 1820 and 1870 doubled the number of inhabitants from 40,000 to 80,000 (Picard, 2011: 7). The extensions beyond the former ramparts at first affected the surrounding agricultural areas, growing mostly along the old country roads (image 4.6). The law finally regulated these areas in 1849 (Braun, 1977: 12), but as they continued to attract more and more inhabitants from the congested old city, extensive interventions in the following years became a necessity.

Image 4.6.

English Map of the Free City of Frankfurt, published in 1840 "under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of useful knowledge", showing the early extension of the city outside the fortified area

Picture in the public domain. Source: www.wikipedia.com, 2012-10-07

92 City Portrait: History http://www.frankfurt.de/ 2012-10-07

96

During the second half of the 19^th century, Frankfurt became the seat of the federal government during the period of German Confederation.⁹³ After the National Assembly held its first meeting in Paulskirche in 1848, the city became the centre of all political life in Germany, which was the initial trigger for a whole new range of developments. By the end of the 19^th century, Frankfurt was already one of the major centres for trade and finances in Europe, and due to its position on important crossroads, it was also a vital node in the expansion of the German railway system from its early beginnings (Picard, 2011). However, the major urban projects that transformed Frankfurt into a Großstadt and marked it until present days were launched during the tenure of the mayors Johannes Miguel and Franz Adickens (Picard, 2011;

Braun, 1977: 22). In the period between 1850 and 1905 there were fifteen new streets crossing through the old urban fabric (Braun, 1977: 16), followed by embellishment and further condensation of the old town; modest ground floor houses were replaced by four to five story tenement houses along the new street fronts (1977: 16). Many representative buildings were erected as well, including several scientific societies, library (1825), civic foundations, clubs, museums and theatres. In 1891, the city was already divided into the central part and outskirts, where different building rules were defined. At the turn of the centuries, the new classicistic buildings were mostly constructed in the areas around Rosmarkt and Zeil, as well as along the former city walls and on the Main riverbank. Until the year of 1900, the districts of Nordend, Westend and Sachsenhausen were already parcelled, taking Haussmann’s renovation of Paris as an example, with the use of diagonal system with radially expanding squares (Braun, 1977:

14). The construction of the representative main train station in 1888 also created an opportunity to develop the new part of the town west from the former city walls. In the period between 1879 and 1926, other important institutions such as the Stock Exchange (1879), Old Opera House (1880), university (1914) and airport (1926) were built.⁹⁴

The turning points for such expansive development were certainly the wars of the 20^th century. After a first standstill caused by the 1^st World War, the city continued to spread mainly in the outer concentric rings, with Ernst May appointed as head of building department in 1925 (Braun, 1977: 28). As May was under strong influence of the garden city movement, his project for ‘New Frankfurt’ imposed characteristic urban growth through the radially extending housing groups and settlements, called Siedlungen.⁹⁵ Also at that time the idea of Grüngurtel was born, which consisted of connecting all the surrounding settlements by an arranged green belt that was finally planned and executed in the 1960-es, as an outstanding concept of housing and

93 City Portrait: History http://www.frankfurt.de/ 2012-10-07

94 City Portrait: History http://www.frankfurt.de/ 2012-10-07

95 There were 21 settlements and house groups built during the mandate of Ernst May only; Westhausen, Praunheim, Römerstadt, Höhenblick, Raimundstraße, Miquelstraße, Bornheimer Hang, Riederwald, Riedhof-West (Heimatsiedlung), Riedhof-Ost, Bruchfeldstraße (Niederrad), then Hellerhof-Siedlung and four other settlements, finished after his departure from Frankfurt. These settlements contributed to the housing fund of the city with more than 10,000 housing units. (Braun, 1977: 30)

urban green. Another turn in the history of Frankfurt was the outbreak of the 2^nd World War, which at first significantly changed its national structure, as under the National Socialist regime 9000 Jews were deported from the city.⁹⁶ Before the very end of the war, large parts of the Frankfurt’s old town were either badly damaged or completely destroyed by the bombings in 1944 (image 4.7); first on January 29^th by the USAAF Eighth Air Force, followed by the allies bombing on March 22^nd. Being an important shipping centre for bulk goods, the East Port (Osthafen) and its own rail connection were also largely destroyed. From 550,000 residents before the war, their number decreased to 270,000 in the after war period (Braun, 1977:36).

Image 4.7.

Views on Frankfurt Altstadt before (1929) and after the war destructions

Left: © Institut für Stadtgeschichte Frankfurt am Main, Nr. S7A1998_1858.

Right: © Bildarchiv Foto Marburg. Source: http://www.fotomarburg.de/, 2012-07-23, Nr. 865.006

Activities on the renewal of devastated areas began immediately after the war in 1945, with construction of the settlements for American troops and the new regional administration (Müller-Raemisch, 1996: 14). As the city needed to cope with the growth in population and traffic (Becker & Wentz, 1992), the main goals of post-war reconstruction were to get a functional city in a relatively short period of time. Rebuilding the old town itself officially started from its outskirts on May 1952, and was characterized by the simple, modern style that was at first adopted as the best option. In fact, it was a certain compromise involving traditionally enclosed courtyards and simplified urban blocks, placed within urban form of the original street network (Schembs, 2005: 56). Within the large-scale destructions of the down-town area, officials also recognized the chances for completely new planning and urban reorganization

96 Nazi era in Frankfurt was announced with the mocking name of the city “Jerusalem am Main”, because of its high Jewish population and continued with the replacement of Jewish mayor and firing of all Jewish officials in the city administration and from city organizations in 1933, as well as boycott of Jewish businesses. (City Portrait: History http://www.frankfurt.de/ 2012-10-07)

98

(Braun, 1977:36). The creation of Berliner, Kurt-Schumacher and Konrad-Adenauer streets (Braun, 1977: 38; F3: Schalk, 00:21:29) made them main urban roads for motorized traffic (image 3.4). Around the existing but upgraded road system, new buildings were erected with only important iconic buildings reconstructed, however in a simplified manner and often with the use of new materials and technology. The very central area between the reconstructed Cathedral and the City Hall was left empty till the mid 1970-es (Müller-Raemisch, 1996: 14; F1:

Buch, 00:03:54), when finally massive modern buildings were introduced into the former historical core; Historical Museum and Technical City Hall – both pulled down in the recent years.

The variety of post-war planning decisions within the relatively small central area of Frankfurt could be considered as initiating for its evolution into a city of contrasts and conflicts (F3: Schalk, 00:37:02). The first condemnations of Frankfurt’s new urban “image without special features”⁹⁷ came at the beginning of the 1960-es; on the one side as a result of hasty clearing away of the war debris, and on the other of modern and functional US-oriented urban reconstruction (Scholz, 1989: 53). Following post-war reconstruction, demolition, major building sites and housing projects, skyscraper boom and the enlargement of the airport, Frankfurt launched a new, ten-year reconstruction phase in the 1980-es, to heal all the wounds of the earlier policies (Becker & Wentz, 1992: 17). The reconstruction of the southern line of Römerberg, Old Opera House and the whole row of Samstagberg houses (Ostzeile) marked this turn in the urban planning of Frankfurt (F1: Buch, 00:03:54; F3: Schalk, 00:37:02). Besides reconstructions of the historic buildings, some new developments have been done, like the attractive row of fifteen museums arranged along the river (so-called Museumsufer), residential districts renovations, new facilities for sport, community and culture. The urban planners of the 1990-es rediscovered their original focus in the city itself (Becker & Wentz, 1992: 12) that culminated in the second decade of the 21^st century. Besides the significant and highly modern enterprises in the outer areas, under the atmosphere of numerous debates, constant challenges, active public scrutiny and participation, Frankfurt turned again to history and tradition, launching another attempt to reconstruct its historical core. However, despite strong influences of history and tradition, the fascination by the American modern architecture, especially high-rise architecture (F3: Schalk, 00:48:45), characterized modern policies on the other side, when Frankfurt began looking upon the skyscrapers of Chicago and New York as symbols of power and prosperity (Jonak, 1997).

97 “Imago ohne Besonderheiten”; Ifas, 1962 in Scholz, 1989: 53

Urban planning concepts for the early high-rise in Frankfurt have been grounded back in the 1920-es, within the frames of the ‘New Frankfurt’⁹⁸ concept by Ernst May, further developed in the post-war history of the city. However, concepts for high-rise were frequently changed and updated, nearly every 8 to 10 years, leaving them often only partially executed and unfinished (Hochhausentwicklungsplan, 2008). High-rise plan from 1953 (Hochhausplan) was the first to recognize and define high-rise as urban dominants of 30 to 50 meters high. Fingerplan was the next important concept in use from the late 1960-es to the mid 1970-es, advocating for mixed-use high-rise, concentrated along the development axes of the city, radially distributed from its centre (Müller-Raemisch, 1996). The following, contrary to concepts of City West Plan from 1973 and Bankenplan for Bankenviertel, executed until 1984 (Müller-Raemisch, 1996), grounded the central high-rise cluster around the green middle within Wallanlagen, between the Theatre and the Old Opera House, becoming the core of Frankfurt’s recognizable skyline.

Extensive planning activities to control the forthcoming high-rise boom in the city and turn it into an asset, led to a major shift at the beginning of the 1980-es, making the skyline a cornerstone of Frankfurt’s early marketing strategy (Scholz, 1989: 91). High-rise development for the whole city was finally regulated in 1998, by the extensive, special high-rise development plan Frankfurt 2000 (Hochhausentwicklungsplan) that with its updates from 2007 and 2008 represents the base for the subsequent development plans.