Higher Education

There has been very minimal or no contestations over the understanding of the term higher education. That means the international understanding of the concept does not in any significance differs from the contextual understanding. Higher education, therefore, is understood in two perspectives. First, based on academic achievements, it is referred to the post secondary education. Post secondary education include: university, academy, college, institutes of technology, and vocational training institutions. The expected academic achievement of post secondary education is the award of academic degrees, diploma, and professional certificates. Concurrently, Knight (2008: 4) defines higher education to include those institutions/providers and programs that lead to credits or awards at the undergraduate or postgraduate levels through full-time, part-time, or continuing education. Mabizela (2007:

20) defines higher education as education leading to the award of degrees and post-graduate qualifications offered primarily at universities. Mohamedbhai (2008:2) defines higher education to represent all forms of organized educational learning and training activities beyond the secondary level i.e. universities, polytechnics, training colleges, all forms of professional institutions.

Second, based on objective, it is referred to the education with a desideratum to impart knowledge and skills. The substantial difference between higher education and other levels (primary and secondary) lies to the ability to impart knowledge and skills applicable to earn a

152 The International Fund for Agricultural Development website

http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/home/tags/kenya on 27 March 2013.

153 The International Fund for Agricultural Development website

http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/home/tags/tanzania on 27 March 2013.

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living (to an individual) and more importantly prosper national or global development. To make sense of this, one has to look at the state of employment (as an ultimate objective of an individual) and the exponential technological change. The knowledge and skills efficient to capture technological pace is prime jurisdiction of higher education through provision of highly qualified skilled labour and researches. The argument is being made here suggests powerfully that investment in higher education is of prime importance. Every state must not caviling to accessing higher education by every able (academically) individual. The understanding of higher education as education to impart knowledge and skills has a clear liaison with the role of higher education. A number of commentators have defined higher education along these lines. For example, Pasque (2010: 20) say higher education is the engine of growth for economy; while Tanzania National Higher Education Policy (1999:3) defines higher education as the scope of knowledge and skills imparted within the tertiary level of education.

2.3.3 University

University is a Latin word “universitas” meaning the whole, totality or universe. It was referred to a guild. A guild is a medieval association of craftsmen and merchants. Neutrally, a guild may be understood as an association or corporation of people pursuing a common objective. Thus, “universitas magistrorum et scholarium” refers to guild of masters/professors and scholars/students. The common objective of both masters and scholars is production of knowledge and skills. For example, the persistence of “akademia” represented specialist schools and institutes. In fact, the first “akademia” were founded in Athens by Plato in the 4^th BC. Aristotle was the student at “akademia” for twenty years (367BC-347BC)¹⁵⁴. The prominent features of “akademia” are specialization and professionalism. Specialization, simply, refers to making something suitable for special purposes¹⁵⁵; similarly, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2006:1415) defines specialization as expertise (profession) in particular area of work, study or business after spending more time. Professionalism, however, refers to competence or skill expected of a professional after a practice of an activity. Two points may be noted from the definitions above. First, there is a move from general knowledge to a particular knowledge. For example, in elementary levels a student is

154 http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/societies/Plato.html on 31 March 2013.

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https://www.google.co.uk/#hl=en&safe=active&sclient=psy-ab&q=what+is+specialization&oq=what+is+specialization&gs_l=serp.3..0l4.29293.38793.0.40179.33.21.2.5.5.4

.306.1707.17j1j2j1.21.0...0.0...1c.1.7.psy-ab.pn7H3mG7MS8&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&fp=7dac3329f46c1ced&biw=1087&bih=615 on 31 March 2013

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introduced into everything including science, mathematics, politics, language, business, history, culture, etc. The knowledge acquired is general and limited to some aspects. As the student goes on further studies is required to specialize to a particular subject/knowledge for the purpose of exploring extensive knowledge and becoming an expert¹⁵⁶. Second, there is an aspect of time in acquiring a particular knowledge. It involves time for theoretical understanding and practical training. It is aptly stated an expert or professional or specialist ought to have a considerable time for theoretical understanding as well as practical training.

The two demand a presence of an institution. This is the essence of establishment of various institutions around the world in the 11^th Century. The first institutions in Europe were known as “stadium generale”. The purpose of this derivation of a university is to bring to your awareness the logical bond existing between a university and skill formation. This is by and large a primary departure of university from other forms of higher education. In addition to that a university is a focal point of scientific and technological innovation. In the modern context, a university refers to the apex of education system as a place for the pursuit and dissemination of knowledge (Ngara, 1995: 5); generally established in perpetuity by higher civil or religious authority, and given permanent status in civil or canon law. They retain a certain form and substance in such matters as curriculum, faculty, permanent physical home or campus, courses of study, diplomas, certificates, and degrees, and strive to maintain an atmosphere and level of intellectual ferment and questioning that is hardly seen in other institutions (McMullen, et al., 2000: 31); the highest-level of institution dedicated to professional and intellectual development of mankind and society in general, are expected to concentrate on research, teaching and public service or consultancy (URT, Higher Education Policy, 1999: 3).

All the same, Verghese (2001) defines higher education while making a keen reference to the various types of higher education institutions. For example, she pronounces research universities to stand at the apex of the educational pyramid, tend to be public and certainly not for profit. Their overriding goals are achieving research excellence across many fields and providing high quality education. The above definitions lead to an understanding of a university denoting the following features. It is the apex of education system. This means it is

156 Expert in human rights, law, economics, business, political analysis, international relations, and science such as engineering, computer, medicine, etc.

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very useful to the survival of other post-secondary education, such as vocational training, training institutions, etc. It is an institution for multi-skill production, researches and innovations. For this role, it suffices to meeting the needs of the society. It is an outstanding institution leading to awarding of a degree, diploma, and certificates. In general, it is broader to include institutes, colleges, schools, research institutes, centre for virtual learning¹⁵⁷ and distance learning. Conclusively, a university is veritable integral and critical to survival of a society. It is imperative to note that university stands as perfect epitome of higher education when one examines the objective and role of such. In that case, higher education and university has been used in this study interchangeably.

2.4 Conclusion

Financing higher education is the most important factor to ensure equity and equality of access to the education. As a consequence, access to higher education by every individual based on the capacity/merit cinches economic growth and development in the society. It must not be forgotten, the role of higher education in the society is to spur economic growth and development. Most governments choose the most effective financing mechanism to the realization of the role of higher education. Notwithstanding, higher education is a public good. There are two extremes of financing higher education. They include public funding and private funding. While public funding permits participation to higher education of every individual under equal basis, private financing acknowledges participation of only those who are able to pay for their education costs. Since the establishment of the university in respective countries of Europe; many governments chose public funding against private funding for the major reason that it is capable of girthing equality, accessibility, availability and quality hence development. It is surprising to find pioneers of private funding who are cost conscious propagating private funding against public funding for the same reason. Inspite of that a realization of the role of higher education is the most one priority of all countries.

In 1970s the world experienced economic crisis albeit increased demand for higher education products. This suggested abandonment of public funding to the expense of private funding.

More intriguing, higher education is perceived to be a private good. In fact, a private good is

157 In Verghese’s words, Virtual universities and Distance Learning is an increasingly important part of higher education system with its ability to reach students in remote areas and address the higher education needs of adults.

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rivalrious and excludes others in consumption. This exclusion is the greatest menace to the realization of the role of higher education. It can be cogitated into two. One, to perceive higher education as a private good is misleading. Its consumption is public and net benefits are distributed across all individuals in the society. Two, the role of higher education is relegated to private benefits. It is incongruous to concede a decisive role of higher education in the society while debating the same as a private good. To cite an example, private good benefits individuals (i.e. if person A eats food, the food does not mutually benefit person B) how comes higher education (as private good) benefits the society? It is aptly stated if higher education benefits the society then it disqualifies to be a private good. At this point of confusion, many countries choose inept mechanism(s) to financing higher education.

Consequently, many people are barred from accessing higher education. Nevertheless, a rights-based approach infiltrates to relieve governments from improper policy choices. The approach obliges governments (duty-bearers) to guarantee citizens (rights-holders) rights i.e.

education, health, water, etc. The best way to do is to empower rights-holders (to claim rights) and strengthen the capacity of duty-bearers (take responsibility to provide rights). Therefore, it is out of such conviction, the study designates rights-based approach to explain underpinnings for private financing in a comparative study of Kenya and Tanzania higher education.

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