Experimental design and procedures

5.4.1 Experimental design

To study the existence and magnitude of discrimination and prejudices towards reintegrating ex-guerrillas, and the impact of indirect contact on attitudes towards demobilized persons, we use a three-stage experimental design. In the first stage, participants solve a real effort task in which they receive an initial endowment.³ The task is to observe three figures and pair the figures with the same shape, while one image is a rotated version of the other. Participants receive a fixed payment of 10,000 COP (3e) if they manage to form 10 pairs. The task is constructed such that everyone should be able to pass it, and in fact, each participant did so. After finalizing the initial task, all participants watch a 3-minute video presenting the organization SENA.

In this stage, using a neutral frame, we explain that trainees at SENA are searching for funding to realize their business ideas. We ask participants if they want to support the trainees’ business ideas and, if so, the amount they want to donate from their earnings. Participants can select donations between zero and 10 000 COP (3e), in increments of 1000 COP (0.3e). In this stage, we introduce the treatments described below.

In the second stage, we apply a single category implicit association test (SC-IAT) based on Karpinski and Steinman (2006). In this test, participants have to quickly associate the objects (figures and words) displayed in the middle of the screen with the words that appear on the top. Each participant plays two rounds, with 72 randomly chosen trials, in which the order of the rounds is randomized⁴. The rounds vary whether the worddemobilizedis written below the wordgoodor the wordbad. The idea behind this test is that persons will likely be faster in the round where the word demobilizedis correctly paired with their mental association (goodorbad). To facilitate understanding of the task, each participant plays introductory practice rounds of 24 trials. For a detailed description of the test, see the instructions of part 3 in Table C.6 in the appendix or the description of the test in Karpinski and Steinman (2006).

In the final stage, participants complete a post-experiment questionnaire. We ask participants about their perceptions of the peace process; their attitudes towards demobilized, poor and displaced individuals; their conflict experiences; general per-sonality characteristics; and additional basic socio-economic characteristics like age, gender, and the subject of study. The final questionnaire, as well as the experiment instructions, can be seen in the appendix in Table C.6.

3The test is publicly available in the experimental library of psytoolkit.org constructed by Stoet (2017).

4The pool of objects consisted out of 10 positive and 10 negative associated words and 10 images associated with demobilized persons

Chapter 5. Discrimination and inter-group contact in Colombia

5.4.2 Treatments

We implement a 2x2x2 between-subject design, where the treatments vary the in-formation that participants receive about the SENA trainees at the end of the first stage. We manipulate three dimensions: a) the identity of the recipients (demobilized or non-demobilized), b) the information about the socio-economic characteristics of the recipients (SES or non-SES), and c) the indirect contact with persons with similar identities as the recipients (contact or non-contact). Table 5.1 presents the experimental design and number of observations per treatment.

TABLE5.1: Treatments

NON-SES SES

Treatment No. of obs. Treatment No. of obs.

No contact Non-demobilized T1 132 T2 133

No contact Demobilized T3 139 T4 127

Contact Non-demobilized T5 137 T6 132

Contact Demobilized T7 136 T8 122

To introduce the identity of the recipients, we provide a short paragraph describing the recipients on the screen. In the non-demobilized condition, we ask participants if they want to support “persons that have been completing a one-year technical training program in the National Training Service.” In the demobilized setting, we ask whether they want to support “demobilized persons that have been completing a one-year technical training program in the National Training Service.” As the beneficiaries of the program include a large population pool, the first condition helps as a control for non-demobilized population. We use the term "demobilized" as opposed to "ex-guerrilla fighters" to focus the attention on peace-building and avoid inducing negative views related to the civil war. Non-demobilized SENA trainees are an adequate control group as they are similar in socio-economic backgrounds to demobilized trainees, share a current activity, and have a comparable interest in forming their own business. The difference in donation between the non-demobilized and demobilized groups captures total discrimination.

In order to disentangle the role of perception of different abilities among the bene-ficiary groups from discrimination, half of the participants receive supplementary information on the socio-economic characteristics of the recipients. Participants in the information treatment, which we also refer to as SES-treatment, are informed about the general socio-economic characteristics of the beneficiaries. Hence, they read, “The beneficiaries of the funding are between 45 and 60 years old, parents, have a technical degree and few years of working experience.” If discrimination is due to perceived differences in the ability of the demobilized persons, as measured by observable characteristics such as education and working experience, this manipulation will

reduce that effect. Hence, differences in donation under this treatment would reflect taste-based discrimination.

In the contact treatment, which is our third manipulation, we expose participants to a 5-minute video with two personal stories about the respective SENA trainees.⁵ In the video, two trainees – a woman and a man - present themselves and their business ideas. The experimental condition varies whether the videos correspond to personal stories of demobilized or non-demobilized trainees. The four SENA trainees - two demobilized and two non-demobilized - recruited for the videos are comparable in terms of general socio-economic characteristics like age, place of residence and educational attainment, as well as in their business ideas. All four persons have completed a one-year course in “sustainable living” or “environmental studies” in the SENA in Cali. We conducted semi-structured interviews with them, which we used as material for the videos.⁶ The variation in the identity of the trainees in the videos allows us to measure how increased contact with demobilized individuals changes social attitudes towards them, and also how it changes the distinct forms of discrimination.

5.4.3 Experimental procedures

We conducted the lab-in-the-field experiment between August and September of 2018. Our experiments took place in the laboratories of four universities: two public (Universidad del Valle in Cali and Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Medellín) and two private ones (Universidad Javeriana in Cali and Universidad EAFIT in Medellín). In total, we ran 42 sessions.

Participants in the study were university students. To increase heterogeneity in the sample and capture variation in attitudes towards conflict, we invited students from different areas of study and of different political orientation. Traditionally, public universities are known for having more politically left-oriented students compared to private universities. The students were recruited by a general announcement sent via e-mail to all university students.⁷ Participants who responded to the announcement received an e-mail with the dates of the sessions and a registration link. Once registered for a session, they received a confirmation e-mail, as well as a reminder the day before the experiment. Participants received a participation fee of 5,000 COP (approximately 1.40e) in addition to the gains from the real effort task, minus the

5The coordinator in the SENA in Cali provided us with a list of eight trainees that fulfilled the following criteria. a) Were taking a course in the SENA, b) have been developing a business idea, and c) were willing to take part in the crowdfunding campaign. We interviewed them and produced a small test video. We selected the four persons based on the interviews, the comparability in business ideas, and socio-economic characteristics.

6The interview guideline is shown in Figure C.7.

7Additional promotion activities like spreading leaflets and hanging posters on the campus have been used to raise the attention of students in Cali, where the recruitment was harder and show-up rates lower.

Chapter 5. Discrimination and inter-group contact in Colombia

donations. Average earnings were 12,614 COP (3.60e), or approximately 124% of a students’ hourly wage.

5.5 Hypotheses

Previous experimental evidence has shown that individuals discriminate against ex-combatants (Cardenas and Mendez, 2014). Nevertheless, subjects’ proclivity to discriminatory behavior might be sensitive to their characteristics. Victims are likely to have stronger negative attitudes towards ex-combatants, as they may associate them with violence and adverse effects. Alternately, persons with a left-leaning politi-cal orientation and persons from lower socio-economic backgrounds may potentially be in favor of the ex-combatants’ former work and their ideology (Åse and Wendt, 2018). Hence, we expect:

Hypothesis 1:Participants will discriminate against demobilized trainees. The degree of discrimination will increase with negative experiences had during the civil war, and will be lower in public universities than private universities. Furthermore, we expect that discrimination is higher among politically right-oriented participants compared to left-oriented counterparts.

We anticipate that participants will face considerable uncertainty about the abilities of the demobilized. On the one hand, they might perceive affiliation to an armed group as a sign of discipline and conviction. On the other hand, many ex-combatants spent a significant proportion of their lives fighting and may lack education. Thus, participants may regard them as less prepared to start a business compared to the control group.

Hypothesis 2:Discrimination decreases when participants receive information on the socio-economic characteristics of the beneficiaries. However, this information is not sufficient to eliminate discrimination.

Ample empirical evidence shows that positive group contact improves inter-group relations (Pettigrew and Tropp, 2006). However, a growing literature on harmful inter-group contact contrasts the positive findings (Paolini et al., 2010, 2014).

Contact may humanize demobilized individuals and increase empathy, but it can also exacerbate the subjects’ negative beliefs by activating their self-confirmatory bias. Since our videos display mainly positive messages regarding the potential recipients, we expect this treatment to improve attitudes and to reduce taste-based discrimination.

Hypothesis 3: Indirect contact with beneficiaries will increase donations towards business ideas and will help to reduce taste-based discrimination. Indirect contact be-tween participants and demobilized individuals will generate more positive attitudes toward demobilized.