Exile / Migration

Another common feature of postcolonial literatures is their concern with place and with displacement. Dislocation (taken both literally and figuratively) and cultural denigration effected by the imperial power engender a struggle for possible local/place-bound identities. This commonly starts with the perception of a gap between the experience of place and the language available to describe it, which can be a signifier of alienation but also the source of creative energy employed to either overcome or highlight that gap.

Critics and writers such as Palestinian-born U.S. resident Edward Said or Indian-born British resident Salman Rushdie employ metaphors of exile to paraphrase experiences of displacement. They have realized that exile, expatriation, migration, and diaspora are

71 Salman Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991, London 1991: 18.

72 Quoted in Richard Todd, “Salman Rushdie’s ‘Privileged Arenas,’” in Barfoot/D’Haen 1993: here 69.

73 In Eric Chock/James R. Harstad/Darrell H.Y. Lum/Bill Teter (eds.) Growing Up Local: An Anthology of Poetry and Prose from Hawai’i, Honolulu 1998: 300-07, here 301.

decisive factors of both the postcolonial and the postmodern condition. Rushdie concludes from this fact that “exiles, or emigrants, or expatriates, are haunted by some sense of loss, some urge to reclaim, to look back […] we will, in short, create fictions, not actual cities or villages, but invisible ones, imaginary Homelands, Indias of the mind.”⁷⁴ Extending this idea to a temporal dimension, he continues:

It may be argued that the past is a country from which we have all emigrated, that its loss is part of our common humanity […] but I suggest that the writer who is out-of-country and even out-of-language may experience this loss in an intensified form. It is made more concrete for him by the physical fact of discontinuity, of his present being in a different place from his past, of his being ‘elsewhere.’⁷⁵

In various contexts, Rushdie has also elaborated the concept of a ‘migrant sensibility,’

which is the condition of

people who root themselves in ideas rather than places, in memories as much as in material things; people who have been obliged to define themselves – because they are so defined by others – by their otherness; people in whose deepest selves strange fusions occur, unprecedented unions between what they were and where they find themselves. The migrant suspects reality: having experienced several ways of being, he understands their illusory nature. To see things plainly, you have to cross a frontier.⁷⁶

Like the metaphorical exile, migration can also be taken as a symptomatic metaphor of our time:

The very word metaphor, with its roots in the Greek words for bearing across, describes a sort of migration, the migration of ideas into images. Migrants – borne-across humans – are metaphorical beings in their very essence; and migration, seen as a metaphor, is everywhere around us. We all cross frontiers; in that sense, we are all migrant peoples.⁷⁷

Applying the idea of the diaspora to the Pacific, the Fijian scholar Subramani states that

“diaspora simply names a transnational space of multiple displacements within a complex

74 Rushdie 1991: 10.

75 Ibid.: 12.

76 Ibid.: 124-25.

77 Ibid.: 278-79.

grid of interdependence.”⁷⁸ Echoes of Rushdie can be perceived in Subramani’s following assessment:

The Pacific, with all its languages and cultures, is really a polyglot text that will keep rewriting itself, producing new versions of its history and cultural identities.

The Pacific we are talking about refuses to be homogenized. If we wish to generalize, we might say there is a Pacific that we carry in our heads, another that is a site of various daily contestations.⁷⁹

Given the above considerations, it is easily conceivable that family histories of (im) migration (or even a temporary residence on the mainland for college education) have constituted some of the incentives for contemporary Hawai’i people to start writing fiction, for anyone “who understands the artificial nature of reality is more or less obliged to enter the process of making it.”⁸⁰ Likewise, native Hawaiians have their own sad story of displacement and discontinuity to tell.

Regional writers take the cultural material of a place and transform it into a mythology that the people of the region can identify as their own. Without this mythology the cultural region would not exist. The historical, economic, and social criteria might be in place, but the region achieves an identity only when it is identified in art.

William Westfall – “On the Concept of Region in Canadian History and Literature”⁸¹

2.2.3 Regionalism

In the context of the different struggles for Local identities it is useful to work with the concept of region, or regionalism.⁸² Hawai’i as an isolated chain of islands can be defined

78 Subramani, “The Diasporic Imagination,” in Cynthia Franklin/Ruth Hsu/Suzanne Kosanke (eds.), Navigating Islands and Continents: Conversations in and around the Pacific, Honolulu 2000: 173-86, here 176.79 Subramani in Franklin et al. 2000: 185.

80 Rushdie 1991: 281.

81 William Westfall, “On the Concept of Region in Canadian History and Literature,” in Journal of Canadian Studies 15 No. 2 (Summer 1980): 3-15, here 11.

82 “the first constituting a territorial definition of geographic space based on a selection of possible differentiating criteria […], and the second constituting an interpretation of social interests that give geographic location priority over such other possible interests as gender, ethnicity, class, age, sexual orientation, and race” (quoted from Frank Davey, “Toward the Ends of Regionalism,” in Christian Riegel/Herb Wyile/Karen Overbye/Don Perkins, A Sense of Place: Re-Evaluating Regionalism in Canadian and American Writing, Edmonton 1998: 2).

rather unambiguously as a region with clear borders. Its shores mark the space we are dealing with. Because of the centrality of a sense of place and because of various linguistic markers of ‘local color’ in writing from Hawai’i, the application of American and Canadian ideas about regionalism is justified. As the editors of a recent study review, The term regionalism is used alternately to describe the unifying principle of a corpus of literary texts (that is, a regional literature), the attachment of a writer to a particular place, the diversity of writing within the larger body of a national literature, or a kind of ideological consciousness or discourse.⁸³

All of those uses can be applied to the situation in Hawai’i. In one of the book’s essays, Frank Davey proposes to “consider both region and regionalism not as locations but as ideologies”⁸⁴ in order to situate regionalism as a social construction among such ideological concepts as the nation state, colonialism, and globalization. He asserts that

“regionalism is cultural rather than geographic, and represents not geography itself but a strategically resistant mapping of geography in which historic and economic factors play large but largely unacknowledged parts.”⁸⁵ Going even further, the concept of regionalism may include the notion of ‘environmental determinism,’⁸⁶ the belief that the landscape has effects on the personalities and perspectives of its inhabitants. This idea informs both U.S. American and Canadian prairie fiction, as well as such classics as Edith Wharton’s Ethan Frome. Davey also explicitly links regionalism with colonies, remarking that both share the sense that power over them resides and is wielded elsewhere, and that both are marked by “a desire for indigenous or originary grounding”⁸⁷ of their respective ideologies. This corresponds with Toronto writer Dennis Lee’s observation that he

was driven into silence because the words that had been given to him could not capture the rhythms of his own experience. […] He believes that technology, materialism, and progress (for Lee the process of Americanization) have destroyed the balance between experience and language. […] In short, a complex social and cultural process has fractured the equilibrium between content and

83 Riegel et al. 1998: x.

84 Davey in Riegel et al. 1998: 1.

85 Ibid.: 4.

86 The term was coined by Francesco Loriggio, quoted by Davey in Riegel et al. 1998: 6.

87 Davey in Riegel et al. 1998: 11. Corresponding evidence for Hawaii’s literature will be produced in chapter 5.4 on place.

form and the resulting disjunction has created a new cultural region – what Lee identifies as ‘colonial space.’⁸⁸

These observations of a city poet mirror the dilemma faced by writers in postcolonial contexts. Place, history, and language have to be interrogated and (re-)claimed in order to turn the colonial into a postcolonial space. To reinscribe a place as home, as the locus of identity, a rigorously regional language has to be developed or utilized. Accordingly, Marjorie Pryse sees regionalist writing as a socialization of our reading practices, for

readers often find themselves in uncertain territory, encountering characters who do not even speak in ‘standard’ or literary English – or Spanish, or French. The narratives of regionalism emerge from a different social world than the one we have been taught in conventional ways to ‘read.’⁸⁹

However, not every critic is optimistic about the future of regions and regionalism in postmodern times: Richard Pickard warns about the prospect of a post-regional world, which we will find ourselves in, “once total consumer colonization has been accomplished.”⁹⁰ Hence, he is sure that “the only defence against becoming a gas station for the information superhighway is to become a coherent region, which means coming to an understanding of what your own region means.”⁹¹ Pickard’s further anxiety about postmodern cyberculture occurring indoors does seem rather absurd in a postcolonial context with its cluster of underdeveloped, non-urban and tropical regions. His worry that

“if there is no reason to go outside, region and location have lost meaning”⁹² might hold true when thinking of Asian high rise ‘Tiger Cities’ like Hongkong and Shanghai, or of American suburbia. However, it does not apply to a place like Hawai’i which has lots of reasons to go outside (and which still has native Hawaiians living in shacks or on the beach.)⁹³ To put it in the words of Rob Wilson, professor of English at the University of Hawai’i and an eloquent cultural critic: “The local Pacific as space of cultural production

88 Westfall 1980: 12.

89 Marjorie Pryse, “Writing Out of the Gap: Regionalism, Resistance, and Relational Reading,” in Riegel et al. 1998: 19-34, here 33.

90 Richard Pickard, “Magic Environmentalism: Writing/Logging (in) British Columbia,” in Riegel et al.

1998: 109.

91 Pickard in Riegel et al. 1998: 106.

92 Ibid.: 110.

93 A few examples of the everyday usage of Hawaii’s particular out-of-doors might be the practice of before- or after-work-surfing, the ritual of beach park parties, the extent of fishing, hunting, diving, and spearfishing both for recreation and for food, and the importance of porches, carports, or ‘wraparound lanais’ (railed balconies or verandahs that encircle the whole house) for neighborhood gatherings, not to mention the frequently ‘open’ architecture visible in public as well as private buildings.

is more than a vacant cipher or ex-primitive dumping ground to be simulated, militarized, and customized into transnational cyberspace.”⁹⁴

Perhaps the recent ‘boom’ of postcolonial, creolized, and regional writing is in fact due to the urban global village’s uniform boredom: If those gas stations, shopping malls, and fast food restaurants look the same in every city, difference is no longer shunned but treasured. This would converge with the most recent version of the old island dream of paradise: As Jamaican writer Opal Palmer Adisa states, European and American audiences “perceive the Caribbean as islands of paradise, places to vacation and relieve oneself of the pressure of living and working in the metropolis.”⁹⁵ The Caribbean is another postcolonial region that has already been theorized extensively. The West Indies share a number of features, issues, and cultural markers with the ‘Sandwich Islands,’ and will therefore be evoked in chapter 3.1 to mirror the Hawaiian experience.

So while the map continues to feature in one sense as a paradigm of colonial discourse, its deconstruction and/or revisualization permits a ‘disidentification’ from the procedures of colonialism (and other hegemonic discourses) and a (re)engagement in the ongoing process of cultural decolonization. The

‘cartographic connection’ can therefore be considered to provide that provisional link which joins the contestatory theories of post-structuralism and post-colonialism in the pursuit of social and cultural change.

Graham Huggan – “Decolonizing the Map”⁹⁶

2.3 Postmodernism

There are some tenets associated with postmodernity that can be utilized here if only to set off the postcolonial condition more explicitly from the ahistorical and disillusioned postmodern perspective. Insular as the Hawaiian society seems to be, it shares in the

94 Rob Wilson/Arif Dirlik, “Introduction: Asia/Pacific as Space of Cultural Production,” in boundary 2 21 No. 1 (1994): 1-14, here 3.

95 Opal Palmer Adisa, “De Language Reflect Dem Ethos: Some Issues with Nation Language,” in Adele S.

Newson/Linda Strong-Leek (eds.), Winds of Change: The Transforming Voices of Caribbean Women Writers and Scholars, New York 1998: 17-30, here 20. Earlier travelers took their time; today, paradise must be experienced in a two-week all-inclusive package.

96 Graham Huggan, “Decolonizing the Map: Post-Colonialism, Post-Structuralism and the Cartographic Connection,” in Ariel 20 No. 4 (1989): 115-131, here 128.

‘postmodern condition’ we all are caught living in. John Frow provides a global model of the contemporary situation, based on late capitalism:

The result of this new speed and flexibility of capital is neither a colonial order of direct domination nor a neo-colonial order of indirect domination of one nation-state by another, but a world system – which we might call precisely ‘post-colonial’ – in which dominance is exercised by international capital through the agency of dominant nation-states and regions but in large part independently of their control. It is in something like these dimensions that I think it is possible to frame – without reducing them to a singular temporality – the concepts of post-modern and post-colonial cultural production.⁹⁷

Postmodernism starts with the realization of the end of European hegemony and thus entails a questioning of authority. When it is seen not as a chronological period but as a way of thinking and doing, a theoretical concept, or “modernity conscious of its true nature,” as Zygmunt Baumann has it,⁹⁸ the convergence with postcolonial ideas becomes obvious:

The concept of postmodernism was originally used to describe a cultural or intellectual trend that opposed the rigid modernist style in art, architecture, and design. However, it has come to be applied to a much wider range of philosophical and social science discourses concerned with the ‘crisis of modernity’ – the end of assumptions, overarching theories, and metanarratives that have gained prominence since the Enlightenment.⁹⁹

Postmodernism supplants modernism’s ‘orderly’ root-and-branch structure with the concept of the rhizome, invoked by Deleuze and Guattari: This botanical term for a root system that spreads across the ground and grows from several points has been taken up as a metaphor for the workings of colonial discourse or cultural hegemony, which do not operate in a simple vertical way, but dynamically, laterally and intermittently.¹⁰⁰

97 John Frow, “What Was Post-Modernism?” in Adam/Tiffin 1991: 139-52, here 149.

98 Quoted in Woods 1999: 12. Modernism had been, among other things, a reaction to the pressure that imperialism exerted on culture, expressing the realization that the exotic was no longer ‘out there’ but ‘in here,’ right at the center of the Empire, and subsequently beginning to supplant the no longer achievable syntheses by eclectic fragments, irony, and self-referentiality. If modernism broke up all unity in despair, postmodernism is enjoying the pieces.

99 Douglas Foley/Kirby Moss, “Studying U.S. Cultural Diversity,” in Ida Susser/Thomas C. Patterson (eds.), Cultural Diversity in the U.S., Oxford 2001: 339-362, here 350-51.

100 See Ashcroft et al. 1998: 207. Wilson and Dirlik quote Deleuze and Guattari in their introduction to the Asia/Pacific special issue of boundary 2: “Isn’t there in the East, notably in Oceania, a kind of rhizomatic

Postmodernism’s incredulity toward metanarratives and its challenge to totalizing discourses can well be compared to postcolonialism’s rejection of imperial self-justification and its offering of alternative histories and formations of identity.

Postmodernism and postcolonialism “merge in such overlapping formal practices as discontinuity, polyphony, and derealization.”¹⁰¹ Both discourses correspond on the surface.

It is their differences, however, that highlight what postcolonialism is all about:

The central rhetorical strategies of postmodernism are intertextual parody, reiteration, quotation, and irony, using the strategies of dominant culture to challenge its discursive processes from within. Postmodernism exposes such strategies as markers of a text’s constructedness, whereas postcolonialism sees them as tools for the “positive production of oppositional truth-claims,”¹⁰² and would not want to discard the referentiality of textuality. To polarize, language games stand opposite political struggles, or, as Stephen Slemon states, “post-colonial cultures have a long history of working towards ‘realism’

with an awareness of referential slippage, and they have developed a number of strategies for signifying through literature an ‘order of mimesis.’”¹⁰³ One reason for this could be the simple fact that most of them have been forced to work with an imposed language that never neatly fit their experiences.

Intellectuals working on the project of decolonization such as Aimé Césaire or the Haitian J.S. Alexis, and more recently Canadian scholar Diana Brydon have “expressed concern at the degree to which post-modernism has seemed to them to be at odds with the social and political aims of their projects,”¹⁰⁴ and have hence sought to resist the subsummation of postcolonialism under the postmodern umbrella. As Linda Hutcheon reiterates, what distinguishes one from the other is that postcolonial art and criticism

“have distinct political agendas and often a theory of agency that allow them to go beyond the post-modern limits of deconstructing existing orthodoxies into the realms of social and political action.”¹⁰⁵ As an example, she adds that the foregrounding of textual gaps in

model that contrasts in every respect with the Western model of the tree?” (boundary 2 21 No.1 (1994): 1).

101 Ian Adam, “Breaking the Chain: Anti-Saussurean Resistance in Birney, Carey and C. S. Peirce,” in Adam/Tiffin 1991: 79-93, here 79.

102 Stephen Slemon, “Modernism’s Last Post,” in Adam/Tiffin 1991: 1-11, here 5.

103 Slemon in Adam/Tiffin 1991: 7.

104 Gareth Griffiths, “Being there, being There: Kosinsky and Malouf,” in Adam/Tiffin 1991: 153-166, here 153.

105 Linda Hutcheon, “Circling the Downspout of Empire,” in Adam/Tiffin 1991: 167-189, here 168.

each discourse stems from different sites of production, namely from the colonial encounter or from the system of writing itself, and thus follows different aims. Coming back to the rhetorical strategies, she clarifies that “while both ‘’s use irony, the post-colonial cannot stop at irony.”¹⁰⁶ The clearest definition of similarities and differences of the two ‘posts’ comes from Diana Brydon:

Post-modernism and post-colonialism often seem to be concerned with the same phenomena, but they place them in different grids of interpretation. The name

modernism’ suggests an aestheticising of the political while the name ‘post-colonialism’ foregrounds the political as inevitably contaminating the aesthetic, but remaining distinguishable from it. If post-modernism is at least partially about

‘how the world dreams itself to be ‘American’’ (Stuart Hall quoted in Ross xii), then post-colonialism is about waking from that dream, and learning to dream otherwise. Post-modernism cannot account for such post-colonial resistance writing, and seldom attempts to.¹⁰⁷

Although postmodernism claims that there are no valid ‘grand narratives’ anymore in our fragmented global village, this study takes as a premise that the universal, the things that unite us as human beings, exist and can be detected by immersing oneself in the local, the particular, and by comparing it with the thoughts and findings of other particulars. This

Although postmodernism claims that there are no valid ‘grand narratives’ anymore in our fragmented global village, this study takes as a premise that the universal, the things that unite us as human beings, exist and can be detected by immersing oneself in the local, the particular, and by comparing it with the thoughts and findings of other particulars. This

Im Dokument A Paradise Lost : Mapping Contemporary Literature from Hawaii (Seite 31-40)