Figures 2.1–2.7 provide an overview of the environmental impact of different forest cluster branches in the EU. Wood products include sawn timber, plywood, particleboard, fiberboard, and preserved products. Printing includes all printing operations and packaging. Estimations are based on numerous sources. The real figures may therefore differ considerably from those presented below. The purpose here, however, is only to show the “big picture” in the cluster.
In the case of pulp and paper, sawn timber, plywood, particleboard, and fiberboard, production capacities used for some figures are based on the databases of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Emission estimations are based on numerous sources.1 The production of forest cluster products is shown in Table 2.1. Figures 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 illustrate the sources of emissions to the air from the EU forest cluster.
Table 2.1. Production of forest cluster products in the EU.
Product Capacity
Chemical pulp 20,764,000 tons
Recovered-fiber-based pulp ~ 25,000,000 tons Mechanical and chemi-mechanical pulp 11,742,000 tons
Paper and paperboard 74,974,000 tons
Printing and packaging < 70,000,000 tons
Sawn timber 71,425,000 m3
Plywood 2,931,000 m3
Particleboard 26,940,000 m3
Fiberboard 4,570,000 m3
Wood preservation ~ 6-10 Mm3
Wood coating ~ 15,000,000 m3
1 The IIASA-RAINS database; environmental reports of various forest industry companies; figures of the US Environmental Protection Agency (1993); figures from the Finnish Forest Industry Federation;
Luttmer, 1996; Bundesministerium für Umwelt, 1995; Ekono/Duoplan figures presented in the 1998 MoDo environmental report; Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook, 1996; Koch, 1996; Klimont, 1997; Giddings et al., 1991; Silferberg et al., 1998.
Figure 2.1. Estimated NOx emission sources for EU forest cluster.
Figure 2.2. SO2 emission sources for EU forest cluster (estimation).
Total 150,000 tons / year
81 % 10 %
6 % 2 %
Pulp and paper Wood products Printing
Wood furniture industry
Total 120,000 tons / year
74 % 22 %
3 % 1 %
Pulp and paper Wood products Printing
Wood furniture industry
Figure 2.3. VOC emission sources for EU forest cluster (estimation).
The pulp and paper industry has the greatest environmental impact in the forest cluster.
Only in the case of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is the importance of the pulp and paper industry relatively small. However, VOC emissions from the forest cluster are approximately 6% of total VOC emissions in the EU, whereas emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) account for only around 1% of the total NOX and SO2 emissions in the EU. (Purchased energy has been excluded from this study.)
The printing industry produces considerably more NOX emissions than SO2 emissions.
A probable reason is the use of NOX-generating thermal afterburners for the destruction of VOCs. Environmental efforts to reduce SO2 emissions from pulp production are evident in a comparison of the shares of the pulp and paper industry in total NOX and SO2 emissions. The relatively high proportion of wood products in the case of SO2 can be largely explained by emissions from particleboard production. Wood furniture coating, printing, and wood preservation, which is included in wood products, generate the most VOC emissions.
Figure 2.4 illustrates the dominance of pulp and paper manufacturing as a source of chemical oxygen demand (COD) emissions to water. No estimates have been made for emissions to water from printing and wood furniture manufacturing. Nevertheless, it is obvious that pulp and paper is the principal source. A concern regarding the printing and wood furniture industries is emissions of hazardous compounds to water, including solvents, silver, and formaldehyde. These latter figures, however, are not available.
Total 700,000 tons / year
9 %
17 %
38 % 36 %
Pulp and paper Wood products Printing
Wood furniture industry
Figure 2.4. Estimated COD emission sources for EU forest cluster.
Figure 2.5 presents the electricity consumption of each cluster branch. Both purchased and electricity generated on site are included. This graph is also dominated by the pulp and paper industry, but the printing industry has quite large share, as well. In the case of wood furniture industry and fiberboard manufacturing, the same electricity consumption levels as in plywood production and particleboard manufacturing, respectively, are assumed. Energy efficiency is the best way to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.
Figure 2.6 illustrates emissions of particulate matter for the US forest cluster. Sources were not available for making a direct comparison for the EU forest cluster. The result would probably be quite similar because of the structural similarities between the forest clusters of the USA and the EU. Here, the importance of wood products and wood furniture building is greater than for NOX and SO2 emissions.
This paper concentrates on the manufacturing processes of the forest cluster. However, it is essential to include other emission sources, such as transportation. Figure 2.7 presents an example of the importance of transportation with respect to emissions of NOX to air.
The best practices for minimizing emissions in the local production chain may require a totally new structure of the forest cluster. Numerous examples support this idea. First, concerning transportation, from an ecological point of view it is better to convert products (e.g., coating and sheet cutting) as close to consumers as possible. Second, as an ecological solution, use of waste paper is currently preferred to use of virgin fiber.
However, more transportation is required to recover paper than to supply timber. Even cleaner processes in the manufacture of chemical pulp may make virgin fiber preferable to recycled fiber from an environmental viewpoint. Analysis of the environmental impact of transportation in the forest cluster is beyond the scope of this study. However, it should be a part of future work in this area.
98 % 2 %
Pulp and paper Wood products
Figure 2.5. Estimated electricity consumption by EU forest cluster.
Figure 2.6. Particulate matter emission sources for US forest cluster.
72 % 7 %
20 %
1 %
Pulp and paper Wood products Printing
Wood furniture industry
68 % 27 %
1 % 4 %
Pulp and paper Wood products Printing
Wood furniture industry
Figure 2.7. NOx emission sources of a Swedish forest industry company.
36 %
15 % 1.80 %
2.30 % 46 %
Pulp Forestry Sawn Timber Energy Transport