1. “Control the four quarters” is an admonition taken from
“T’ai Kung’s Six Secret Teachings,” purportedly written to pro-vide advice to Kings Wen and Wu of the Chou Dynasty in the 11th Century B.C., in Ralph Sawyer, trans., The Seven Military Classics, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993, p. 46.
2. From a speech by Hu Jintao at the 90th Anniver-sary of the Chinese Communist Party, Xinhua, July 1, 2011, available from www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/cpc2011/2011-07/01/
content_12818048_15.htm.
3. For a general discussion of the internal challenges of build-ing and maintainbuild-ing CCP legitimacy and the implications for pol-icy, see Susan Shirk, China: Fragile Superpower, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
4. China’s National Defense in 2010, Beijing, China: The Infor-mation Office of China’s State Council, March 31, 2011, available from www.china.org.cn/government/whitepaper/node_7114675.htm.
5. China’s National Defense in 2008, Beijing, China: The Infor-mation Office of China’s State Council, January, 2009, available from www.china.org.cn/government/central_government/2009-01/20/
content_17155577.htm.
6. For an excellent discussion of PAP and PLA responses to 2008 and 2009 emergency response exigencies, see Harold M.
Tanner, “The People’s Liberation Army and China’s Internal Se-curity Challenges,” in Roy Kamphausen, David Lai, and Andrew Scobell, eds., The PLA at Home and Abroad: Assessing the Operational Capabilities of China’s Military, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Insti-tute, U.S. Army War College, June, 2010.
7. Unattributed, “Social Governance Debuts in Five-Year Plan,” South China Morning Post Online, March 6, 2011, available from www.archive.scmp.com. China’s internal state security budget has surpassed the official defense budget. See Chris Buckley, “Chi-na Inter“Chi-nal security Spending Jumps Past Army Budget,” Reuters, March 5, 2011, available from www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/05/
china-unrest-idUSTOE72400920110305.
8. For an overview of PAP historical antecedents, structural and organizational developments, and missions, see: Tai Ming Cheung, “The People’s Armed Police: First Line of Defence,” in David Shambaugh and Richard H. Yang, eds., China’s Military in Transition, Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1997; and Murray Scot Tanner, “The Institutional Lessons of Disaster: Reorganizing the People’s Armed Police After Tiananmen,” in James Mulve-non and Andrew N.D. Yang, eds., The People’s Liberation Army as Organization, Reference Volume v 1.0, Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2002.
9. Dennis J. Blasko, “PLA Ground Forces Moving Toward a Smaller, More Rapidly Deployable, Modern Combined Arms Force,” in James Mulvenon and Andrew N. D. Yang, eds., The People’s Liberation Army as Organization, Reference Volume v 1.0, Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2002.
10. Hu Jintao, “Report to the 17th Party Congress,” Beijing, China, October 25, 2007, available from www.china.org.cn/english/
congress/229611.htm.
11. Harold M. Tanner, “The People’s Liberation Army and China’s Internal Security Challenges,” in Roy Kamphausen, Da-vid Lai, and Andrew Scobell, eds., The PLA at Home and Abroad:
Assessing the Operational Capabilities of China’s Military, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, June, 2010;
Dennis Blasko, “ People’s Liberation Army and People’s Armed Police Ground Exercises with Foreign Forces, 2002-2009,” in Roy Kamphausen, David Lai, and Andrew Scobell, eds., The PLA at Home and Abroad: Assessing the Operational Capabilities of China’s Military, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, June, 2010; and Murray Scot Tanner, “How China Man-ages Internal Security Challenges and Its Impact on PLA Mis-sions,” in Roy Kamphausen, David Lai, and Andrew Scobell, eds., Beyond the Strait: PLA Missions Other Than Taiwan, Carlisle, PA:
Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, April, 2009.
12. Howard French, “Rattled, Chinese Make Security for Olympics Top Priority,” The New York Times, April 1, 2008, avail-able from www.iht.com/articles/2008/04/01/asia/tibet.php.
13. Unattributed, “China sends anti-terrorist unit to restive west,” Associated Press wire report, August 14, 2011, available from www.dawn.com/2011/08/14/china-sends-anti-terrorism-unit-to-restive-west.html.
14. Michael Wines, “China Approves Law Governing Armed Police Force,” The New York Times, August 27, 2009, available from www.nytimes.com/2009/08/28/world/asia/28china.html.
15. Ibid.
16. Chen Liping (陈丽平), “全国人大常委会作出决定加强反 恐怖工作” (“The NPC Made a Decision to Strengthen Anti-ter-rorist Work”), 法制日报 (Legal Daily), October 29, 2011, available from www.legaldaily.com.cn/index_article/content/2011-10/29/con-tent_3066938.htm?node=5955.
17. Martha Mendoza, “Nations turned to ant-terrorism laws as shield—and sword—after 9/11,” The Seattle Times, Septem-ber 4, 2011, available from seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nation-world/2016104402_sept11convicted04.html.
18. China’s National Defense in 2008.
19. China’s National Defense in 2010.
20. Yuning Wu, Ivan Sun and Aaron Fichtelberg, “Formal-izing China’s Armed Police,” in Crime, Law and Social Change, Vol. 56, No. 3, November 2011, available from www.citeulike.org/
group/11075/article/8820036.
21. For more detail on PAP structure and command, see Da-vid Shambaugh, Modernizing China’s Military: Progress, Problems, and Prospects,” Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, April 2004.
22. Unattributed, “White Paper: China Has 260,000 Armed Po-lice on Guard Every Day,” Xinhua, January 20, 2009, available from www.news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-01/20/content_10688124.htm.
23. China’s National Defense in 2010.
24. Mi Aini, “详解中国反恐布局” (“Detailed Explanation of China’s Anti-terrorism Disposition”), 瞭望东方周刊 (Oriental Outlook), No. 28, July 15, 2010, pp. 18-20.
25. Ibid., p. 19.
26. Ibid., p. 20.
27.王作葵和赵嘉麟 (Wang Zuokui and Zhao Jialin), “中俄’
合作－2007’联合反恐演习圆满结束” (“Sino-Russian ‘Coopera-tion 2007’ Joint Anti-terrorism Drill Brought to Successful
Con-clusion”), 新华 (Xinhua), September 6, 2007; and Zhang Dongbo
(张东波), “中国武警‘雪豹突击队’初步具备反恐制胜作战能力”
(“China’s Terrorist Crack Troops, the ‘Snow Leopards,” Display Their Ability to Win”), Xinhua, November 12, 2007.
28. Unattributed, “Unit Sent to Xinjiang to Smooth Way for Expo,” China Daily, August 13, 2011, available from www.china.
org.cn/china/2011-08/13/content_23202225.htm.
29. From August 4-7, 2008, CCTV-7 aired a four-part docu-mentary on the Snow Leopards as part of its weekly 军事纪事 (Military Documentary) series.
30. Zhu Jianjun (朱建军), “反恐处突的空中利剑”(“A Sharp Sword in the Sky for Combatting Terrorism and Emergency Re-sponse”), 解放军画报 (PLA Pictorial), December 1, 2008, pp. 54-55.
31. Unattributed, “China Coast Guard,” SinoDefence.com, March 21, 2009, available from www.sinodefence.com/navy/coast-guard/default.asp.
32. Zhu Fengyun (朱凤云), “在继续解放思想中推进武警部队 建设又好又快发展” (“Liberate thought to improve and accelerate the development of the People’s Armed Police”), 国防大学学报 (Journal of the National Defense University), No. 12, 2007, pp. 98-99.
33. For discussions of PAP funding, see Roger Cliff, Evan Medeiros, James Mulvenon, and William Overholt, Modern-izing China’s Military, Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 2005; John Lee, “PAP: The Rise of the Party’s Army,” Jamestown China Brief, June 19, 2008, available from www.jamestown.org/
programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=4999&tx_
ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=168&no_cache=1; and Shaoguang Wang,
“China’s Expenditure for the People’s Armed Police and Militia,”
in Chinese Civil-Military Relations: The Transformation of the People’s Liberation Army, Hong Kong: Asian Security Studies, 2006, avail-able from www.cuhk.edu.hk/gpa/wang_files/MilitiasPAP.doc.
34. See for example Zhu Fengyun, p. 99; and Liu Dongsheng (刘东升), “要重视对武警部队处突战略的研究” (“We must em-phasize research on emergency response strategies for People’s Armed Police units”), 新世纪新阶段国防和军队建设
(Construc-tion of Na(Construc-tional Defense and the Military in the New Century and the New Phase) 上册 (Vol. 1), 2008, pp. 236-238. Originally pub-lished in军事学术 (Military Review).
35. Mi Aini, p. 19.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
38. M. Taylor Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.
39. Unattributed, “SCO to deepen pragmatic cooperation,”
China Daily, May 20, 2011, available from www.chinadaily.com.cn/
opinion/2011-05/20/content_12550033.htm.
40. 杨正武 (Yang Zhengwu), “武警院校要成为反恐人才库” (“Academies of Armed Police Should Become Repositories for Anti-terrorist Talent”), 光明日报 (Guangming Daily), August 23, 2006, available from www.gmw.cn.
41. For further information on the PLA’s “integrated com-mand platform,” see Cortez A. Cooper III, “Joint Anti-Access Operations: China’s ‘System of Systems’ Approach,” Testimony presented before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, January 27, 2011.
42. From a CCTV-7, 军事报道 (Military Report) on April 3, 2012.
43. From a CCTV-7, 军事报道 (Military Report) on January 5, 2012.
44. 张建军，张怀敏和王国银 (Zhang Jianjun, Zhang Huaimin and Wang Guoyin), “武警新疆总队遥控排爆机器人5分钟解体爆 炸物” (“Xinjiang Armed Police Unit’s Remote Controlled Bomb Defusing Robot Dismantles Explosive in 5 Minutes”), 解放军报 (PLA Daily), November 21, 2007.
45. Mi Aini, p. 19.
46. From a CCTV-7, 军事报道 (Military Report) on November 18, 2011.
47. Unattributed,”‘雪豹突击队’和奥运反恐精英” (“The ‘Snow Leopard Commando Unit’ and the Olympic Anti-Terror Elite”), 三联生活周刊 (Life Week), August 11, 2008, pp. 66-73.
48. 邹永星, 田西柱和程清志 (Zou Yongxing, Tian Xizhu and Cheng Qingzhi), “新型警用装备显威特殊战场” (“New-Model Po-lice Equipment Demonstrates Power on a Special Battlefield”), 解 放军报 （PLA Daily Online), November 27, 2008, available from www.chinamil.com.cn.
49. Zhang Wansong (张万松), “打造应对非战争军事行动后勤 保障新格局” (“Create a New Logistic Support Pattern for Coping With Non-combat Military Actions”), 人民军队 (PLA Activities Re-port), July 22, 2008.
50. Wang Lanjun (王兰军), “着眼维护边境稳定增强军警民联 合指挥能” (“Enhance the Military, Police, Militia Joint Command Capability for Safeguarding Frontier Stability”), 人民军队 (PLA Activities Report), July 22, 2008.
51. Zhang Jianjun, Zhang Huaimin, and Wang Guoyin, p. 3.
52. From August 4-7, 2008, CCTV-7 aired a four-part docu-mentary on the Snow Leopards as part of its weekly 军事纪事 (Military Documentary) series.
53. Unattributed, “600 Million More Yuan for Xinjiang Armed Police,” China Daily Online, March 6, 2010, available from www.
chinamil.com.cn.
54. China’s National Defense in 2008.
55. Unattributed, “Chinese President Urges Comprehen-sive Efforts to Build Modern Armed Police Force,” Xinhua, July 11, 2011, available from english.gov.cn/2011-07/11/content_
1903815.htm.
56. See multiple reports from the Hong Kong press in the Jan-uary to March 2011 timeframe.
57. See, for example, the mission statement of the Beijing Mu-nicipal Public Security Bureau, available from www.bjgaj.gov.cn/
eng/gajjjAction.do?methodname=gajjjIndex&cateCode=GAJJJ.
58. Professional and amateur media coverage of Wukan abounds, but for concise analysis of Wukan and its implications, see Russell Leigh Moses, “Will Wukan be the New Normal,” The Wall Street Journal Real Time Report, December 28, 2011, available from blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2011/12/28/will-wukan-be-the-new-normal/; and Elizabeth Economy, “Wukan’s Struggle Is Not Over,”
The Atlantic, January 12, 2012, available from www.theatlantic.com/
international/archive/2012/01/wukans-struggle-is-not-over/251314/.
59. Tim Parsons, “Police State: China’s Community-based Po-licing,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, January 5, 2012.
60. China’s National Defense in 2010.
61. Unattributed, “武警部队奥运保安训练全面启动” (“PAP Olympic Security Training Comprehensively Kicks Off”), Xinhua, May 17, 2007, available from news3.xinhuanet.com/
sports/2007-05/17/content_6111315.htm.
62. Meng Xiaodong, “Promoting the Launch of Olympic Se-curity Work,” Qinhuangdao Ribao, July 5, 2007, p. A01.
63. Li Jing (李静), “武警军队反劫机演练备战奥运，重点防 范三种威胁” (“Armed Police, Military Anti-Hijacking Exercise to Prepare for the Olympics, Focus on Preventing Three Types of Threats”), 世界新闻报 (World News Journal), August 26, 2007, available from 2008.sohu.com/20070826/n251782660.shtml.
64. Shen Xiaohong, “PAP Special Police Units Participate in Great Wall No. 4,” 人民武警报 (PAP News), June 20, 2007, p. 1.
65. Ben Mah, “The July 5 Riots in Xinjiang,” The New Legalist, July 18, 2009, available from ninfajia.net/content/review/6484.page;
and Uyghur American Association, “Exile Brings Voice to Uighur Movement,” July 27, 2009, available from www.uyghuramerican.
org//articles/3363/1/exile-brings-voice-to-movement.html.
66. Ibid.
67. Holly Fletcher and Jayshree Bahoria, “East Turkestan Is-lamic Movement,” Council on Foreign Relations Backgrounder, July 31, 2008, available from www.cfr.org/china/east-turkestan-is-lamic-movement-etim/p9179.
68. Unattributed, “Turkestan Islamic Party claims western China attacks,” Associated Press wire report, 8 September, 2011, available from www.dawn.com/2011/09/08/turkistan-islamic-party-claims-western-china-attacks.html.
69. Michael Wines, “Militant band Claims Role in Western China Attacks,” The New York Times, September 8, 2011, available from www.nytimes.com/2011/09/09/world/asia/09china.html.
70. Zhang Xudong (张旭东), Bian Fubin (边富斌), and Zhou
Fengwu (周风武), “军地互动探新路：文山军分区组织边境地区军
警民联训联演纪” (“Exploring New Ways of Military-Local Inter-action: Wenshan Military Sub-district Organizes Military-Police-Civilian Joint Training and Exercises in Border Areas”), 战旗报 (Zhanqi Bao), August 12, 2008, p. 3.
71. Ibid.
72. China’s National Defense in 2010.
73. Ibid.
74. Bates Gill and Chin-Hao Huang, “China’s Expanding Role in Peacekeeping,” SIPRI Policy paper 25, November 2009, avail-able from books.sipri.org/files/PP/SIPRIP25.pdf.
75. 赵会领 (Zhao Huiling), “提高维和警察防暴队培训质量的 实践与思考” (“Thoughts on the Enhancement of FPU Training Quality”), 武警学院学报 (Journal of the Chinese People’s Armed Po-lice Force Academy), No. 5, 2008.
76. See the UN Peacekeeping website available from www.
un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/contributors.
shtml.
CHAPTER 5