The Eighties .1 Film Sequences

In 1972 Edwin Earl Catmull and Frederick I. Parke documented in "Halftone Animation"

an animation in the making: It started with the scanning of plastic models (a plaster model of Catmull´s hand) on whose surfaces line networks were drawn for the

partitioning into polygons. Furthermore "Halftone Animation" presents the animation of a face with Gouraud shading (see chap. IV.2.1.3). 31

Catmull, Edwin Earl/Parke, Frederick I.: Halftone Animation, film, 1972, screenshots from Vimeo.

In Michael Crichton´s "Westworld" (1973) Yul Brynner appeared in the role of the android "Gunslinger" challenging visitors with prepared weapons in the amusement park

"Delos" to duels. The harmless fights for the visitors´ distraction changed to mortal fights. Gary Demos and James Whitney Jr., colleagues at Triple-I (Information

International Inc.), presented Gunslinger´s observation of his environment as digitised and modificated film recordings: The digitalisation via colour film scanner, made possible by the high resolution cathode ray tubes of Triple-I, was transformed into a rough pixel grid. For this procedure the colours were separated into three tonal values and a mask for black areas. The separated was converted into rectangular blocks. The tonal values resulting from this conversion were translated into colour values. For the 10 second during sequences of the android´s view with a total duration of 2,5 min an eight hours lasting computing process was needed.

Crichton, Michael: Westworld, film, 1973 (excerpts), screenshots from YouTube.

Simulations of hands and faces realised by Catmull and Parke between 1972 and 1974 were in 1976 presented in Richard T. Heffron´s (director) "Futureworld", the sequel to

"Westworld", as sequences on a control monitor.

The animation on the monitor presents Peter Fonda´s head in a transition from a polygon animation to smoothed facial features with light reflexes as a part of the production of a doppelganger. Gary Demos and John Whitney Jr. photographed Fonda´s face from different angles and transfered these data via graphics tablet in a digital 3D space. This archive with face data was the starting point for further animation steps being presented on the control monitor as the becoming of the doppelganger´s head in a change from edged to smooth surfaces. 32

Heffron, Richard T.: Futureworld, film, 1976, screenshots from YouTube.

Fonda plays the journalist Chuck Browning. Browning discovers a clone production in the amusement park "Delos". For the clone production genetic codes by well known and influential persons are used – without the knowledge of the cloned persons. Browning is cloned, too. The doppelgangers are used for the far-reaching ambition to achieve the world supremacy.

Lucas, George: Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, film, 1977 (scene with the projection of the Empire´s station "Death Star" and its production with GRASS, explained by Larry

Cuba).

In 1977 Larry Cuba used Tom DeFanti´s animation program GRASS (see chap. IV.1.2) to realise a wire frame simulation for a two minutes lasting sequence in George Lucas´

movie "Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope". The animation presented the Empire´s station "Death Star" as a projection in a training session of the Rebel Alliance´s pilots directed by General Dodonna. The simulation should correspond to the public´s expectations of computer-generated animations. That is why Cuba renounced to use animations simulating surfaces of objects.

Scott, Ridley: Alien, film, 1979. Alan Sutcliffe´s computer animation on navigation screens in the spaceship Nostromo.

In 1979 Ridley Scott integrated in "Alien" wire frame simulations by Alan Sutcliffe in a scene during the landing of the spaceship "Nostromo" on its navigation screens: In the descent mountains appeared as wave lines. 33

Carpenter, Loren C.: Vol Libre, film, 1980, screenshots from Vimeo.

In 1980 Loren C. Carpenter featured in the short film "Vol libre" a computer animated mountainscape generated by fractals. Carpenter´s demonstration of the use of fractal geometry in a three-dimensional landscape representation was his ticket to Lucasfilm. 34 In 1981 appears the first computer animated actress in Michael Crichton´s "Looker".

Meanwhile in "Futureworld" the animated body parts still appear as film-within-the film,

"Looker" is the first movie presenting a simulated actress.

Crichton, Michael: Looker, film, 1981. Scene with a scan of a fashion model´s body, screenshots from YouTube.

In "Looker" fashion models offer their bodies for digitalisations to receive monthly salaries for the rest of their lifetime. The virtual models are then used by Digital Matrix in advertisement films. After the scan process of a model´s body (model played by Susan Dey) follows directly the construction of a body simulation. The animation skills of Triple-I made it possible to represent the model´s digitalisation.

The film features the investigations to find out the causes for the deaths of three of the virtualised models. Meanwhile the movie leaves the cinema visitors in the dark about the causes, the TV version uncovers them: The living proofs for the existence of the digital bases with body data are eliminated by Digital Matrix – like all documents that could be useful for competitors. 35

Meyer, Nicolas: Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, film, 1982. Genesis demo, screenshots from YouTube.

In 1982 the Lucasfilm Computer Graphics Research Group created a one-minute demofilm sequence for Nicolas Meyer´s "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan" ("Genesis Demo sequence"). The sequence presented a planet being revived by a "Genesis Torpedo", as prescribed by the plot. For the three-dimensional animation Reyes

Rendering was utilised. Loren C. Carpenter realised the simulation of the landscape with fractals. Agitated surfaces representing fields of heat energy among others were

generated with Particle Systems. 36

Reyes Rendering and Particle Systems are developed by the Lucasfilm Computer Graphics Research Group. The versatile animation system Reyes Rendering is constructed to need as less computing capacity as possible for realistic simulations.

Therefore Ray Tracing is reduced to a minimum. 37 Curved surfaces are divided in

"micropolygons". In Reyes rendering the "micropolygons" are the geometric basic element of nearly all algorithms: "They are flat-shaded quadrilaterals that are

approximately 1/2 pixel on a side." The needed computational effort is reduced by simple procedures running parallel. Basic elements ("primitives") are transfered to

"micropolygons" only so far as it is necessary for the simulation of smooth surfaces.

Shading is simplified by a condensation of "micropolygons" to wider raster areas

(leading to savings of identical edges at adjacent "micropolygons") and by a vectorisation of the "shading operations". 38

"Particle Systems" was developed by William T. Reeves at the New York Institute of Technology. The program for "Modeling a Class of Fuzzy Objects" offers animators procedures to simulate "clouds, smoke, water, and fire":

They are not rigid objects nor can their motions be described by the simple affine transformations that are common in computer graphics. Particles change its form and move with the passage of time. 39

Particles are more simple basic elements ("primitives") than the polygons. the model is procedurally defined and can be programmed that – similar to fractals – in zooming in a

"particle system" with stochastic procedures constantly new details become recognisable.

New particles arise while elder particles disappear.

According to Reeves, in the "Genesis demo" for "Star Trek II", a fire wall of the revived planet was generated with "400 particle systems" which included 750.000 particles. 40

Sims, Karl: Particle Dreams, film, 1988, screenshots from YouTube.

In 1988 Karl Sims demonstrates the possibilities of "Particle Systems" in "Particle Dreams". The particles in motion don´t represent bodies, nevertheless they can be coordinated to simulate snowflakes or running water. At the beginning of the film a pointillistic head-shaped configuration arises by a three-dimensional spreading of particles that are then ejected out of the mouth. This process grows up to a self-dissolution, as if heads never were solid bodies. With this scene Sims points out the program´s possibilities beyond movie sequences: It involves more than the results of experts for specific special effects realising the director´s ideas and the requirements of the storyboard.

Sims implemented "Particle Systems" on a "data parallel computer", The Connection Machine CM-2 of the Thinking Machines Corporation (since 1985). Sims wrote his program in "a parralel language called Starlisp" for the simultaneous operations of

"thousands of processors" including the virtual processors. 41 Cliff Lasser and Steve Omohundro wrote Starlisp for the Connection Machine. The program used PVARS (Parallel Variables) for computing in vectors.

Lisberger, Steven: Tron, Film, 1982. Lightbike scene, screenshot from YouTube.

In 1982, after "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan" the cinemas presented "Tron" (1982), directed by Steven Lisberger (direction and script). In "Tron" Ed Dillinger (played by David Warner) manages the media imperium ENCOM whose supercomputer controls with its self-developing "Master Control Program" most of the computer systems and prevents the ingress into protected sectors. Kevyn Flynn (played by Jeff Bridges) was a former employee of Dillinger´s company ENCOM and works now in amusement arcades controlled by ENCOM. Flynn tries to utilise the security programme "Tron", which is independent from the "Master Control Program", to infiltrate the center of the "Master Control Program" and to destroy the "Master Control Unit". Flynn tries to proof that Dillinger became president of ENCOM because of data theft: He presented computer games developed by Flynn as his invention.

The story of "Tron" is structured in three levels: the amusement arcades controlled by ENCOM, the ENCOM premises, and within ENCOM the "Master Control Program"

running on the supercomputer. This program decouples avatars from its system-external users. These avatars are prisoners of a virtual world forcing them either to survive in winning games played on technically installed platforms against other prisoners or to be eliminated as losers. The "Master Control Program" menaces Dillinger by using his control of the database storing the evidence of Dillinger´s fraud. With this control the power seeking "Master Control Program" takes over ENCOM´s control of the games in amusement arcades.

Via the combat between users and their avatars against the "Master Control Program" the movie thematises the balance between programming for external aims and correlations within the program. Independent from the "Master Control Program" is the safeguarding program "Tron" maintaining the contact to the users and supporting their control over their avatars. "Tron" takes up science fiction patterns in its presentation of a system being controlled by a totalitarian power to be combatted.

For "Tron" Triple-I, MAGI/Synthavision, Robert Abel & Associates and Digital Effects realised computer-based animations with different programs. The combination of these animation companies was a result of the challenge to develop computer animated film sequences for "Tron" with a total duration of 30 minutes (including background animations). The involved animation companies received instructions from Richard Taylor (computer effects supervisor) and Bill Kroyer (computer image choreographer) being obligatory for the fitting-together of the contributions. Digital Effects realised the title sequence and "Bit", a crystal-shaped polygon object changing form and colour with its binary replies (yes/no). The "Light Cycles", "Recognizers" and "Tanks" were

animated by MAGI. The company executed with their animations of a total length of 15 minutes the largest part of all computerised animations. Triple-I realised the "Master Control Program", a solar glider and Sark´s spaceship. The sequence with Kevyn Flynn entering the system of the supercomputer was developed by Abel & Associates. Syd Mead and Jean `Moebius´ Giraud drafted the two-wheel vehicles ("light cycles") and their environment within the supercomputer´s system. 42

MAGI´s Software "SynthaVision" "converts models of quadric surfaces, polygons, and other geometric forms into three-dimensional images. These can be shaded and textured."

In SynthaVision a director´s code offered animators the definition of motion patterns for objects and the preliminary fixing of cameras and lighting. With SynthaVision fluid motion sequences could be achieved easily. SynthaVision´s capabilities to simulate complex elements were limited compared to the simulation of poygon nets by Triple-I.

Abel & Associates realised vectorial effects with their animation software developed under the directon of Bill Kovacs. 43

After "Tron" virtual worlds were presented again in movies like the TV series "Max Headroom" (1985-87) and in novels like William Gibson´s "Count Zero" (1986) as autonomous electronic systems `communicating´ with reality in various ways. 44 Presented in films, novels and postmodern criticism of the media these fictions constituted elements of a "techno-imaginary" (see chap. IV.2.1.4.4) projecting the contemporary computer animation into a future of autonomous virtual systems because this evolution seemed to be inevitable.

Lasseter, John: Toy Story, film, 1995. Still.

In the eighties and nineties the expectations toward the computer animation for movies were shaped dominantly by Pixar (Lucasfilm´s former department for computer

animation turned autonomous) and Industrial Light and Magic. The next steps of the history of movies with computerised animations to "Insektors" (1993, broadcast in 1994, Studio Fantome), the first TV series made exclusively with computer animations, and to

"Toy Story" (1995, Disney-Pixar), the first movie completely animated by computer-based image processing will not be considered here. It is sufficient for the "History of Computer Art" to work out relations between computing processes and forms of presentation up to a degree of differentiation suggesting expansions of technical and artistic possibilities as well as the search for combinations with other fields to construct hybrids and intermedia (see chap. I).

Since the eighties the computer animation was and is augmented for the realisation of movies, meanwhile with the utilisation of animation technologies in reactive installations new concepts of human-computer interfaces (HCI) were and are explored (see chap. V).