5. Part-Time Employment Regulation within the EC
5.1 Directives on Part-Time Employment
The European Community (EC) has been more intensively occupied with the development of part-time employment since the end of the 70s. In the seventies there were no specific EC measures on working time (Hepple 1990a). The first statement in 1978 by EC's Economic and Social Committee advocated the expansion of part-time work opportunities as a
"possible means of spreading the supply of available work more evenly".
The committee favoured such a move on the conditions that part-time work is voluntary (i.e. this excludes short-time working), does not entail excessive costs for industry or the community, is not allowed to disrupt the labour market, does not Iead to a breakdown of the social security system and that the legal position is improved, that part~time workers are given comparable rights and protection to full-time workers ( cf. Drew 1990).
Within the EC, two aims have been stressed: to remove the discrimination against part-time work, and to create part-time job opportunities and new forms of part-time work for those who wish to avail them. Part-time work should be open to women and men and not just limited to unskilled jobs.
The EC recommended in the early eighties that part-time work should be more easily available to certain groups of workers, such as parents of young children, and older workers and hoped that firms and the public sector would experiment with special programmes in relation to these suggestions ( cf. Commission of the European Communities 1980). In order to ensure the same social rights and obligations for part-time workers as for full-timers, the Commission considered that this would require examination and readjustment of most national tax and social security systems.
At the same time, since the beginning of the 80s, employer' demand emerged for increasing labour "flexibility" in all its forms including the relaxing of restrictions on working time and forms of employment such as
part-time work ( cf. Kravaritou-Manitakis 1988)" .The Commission developed a proposal for a directive on voluntary part~time employment 1982/1983 which had the objectives of eliminating discrimination between part-time and full-time workers, and of promoting wider opportunities for part-time employment. The response of national governments to the adoption of the directive has been mixed, with France and some other countdes in support of the pro-rata rights for part-time workers" The British government vetoed effectively and stated that any revision of national legislation which would improve the rights of part-time workers would adversely affect their employment chances" Emplo'yers would be reluctant to engage or continue to employ part~time workers without financial inducement of lower costs, in terms of pay and entitlement, it was
argued.
Until 1990 nothing happened to the proposal, but in June 1990 the Commission put forward three proposals on part-time working and temporary work" Based on the Community Charter of Fundamental Social Rights, the EC directives identify the necessity for a common concept as follows: "The completion of the internal market must lead to an improvement in the living and working conditions of workers. This progress must result from an approximation of these conditions while the improvement is being maintained, as regard in pa.rticular the duration and operation of working time, and forms of employment other than open-ended contracts, such as fixed term contracts, part-time working, temporary work and seasonal work ... Atypical forms of work ... constitute an important component in the organisation of the labour market. For example part-time working in a11 its forms, casual work and fixed term working have grown considerably in recent years, often in a quite anarchical manner. Unless safeguards are introduced, there is a danger of seeing the development of terms of employment such as to cause problems of social dumping or even distortion of competition, at Community Ievel"
( cf. EIRR 200, 1990). The aims of the directives are:
- to prevent any extension of the current degree of insecurity and segmentation in the labour market and to promote an improvement in the working and living conditions of workers - mainly by ensuring that
employees in part-time and temporary employment. receive treatment
"comparable" with that of employees working full-time on open-ended contracts;
~ to eliminate differences in social costs between EC-members ansmg from varying national rules regulating part-time and temporary employment relationships, notably in the areas of social security and costs related to seniority and dismissals,
- to improve the minimum Ievels of protection of health and safety for temporary workers.
Unlike the 1983 draft directive on voluntary part-time work, there is now to be a Community-wide uniform 8-hours threshold. This minimum threshold of 8 hours a week is justified by the Commission on the grounds of avoiding "any disproportionate administrative costs" which could run counter to the overall objectives of the directives.
All part-time employees working more than 8 hours a week should be given access to vocational training, should be granted the same benefits in cash and kind under social assistance schemes, given access to the social services normally made available to other employees, should be informed when full-time workers are recruited so that consideration can be given to their job applications. Part-time workers should be afforded the same entitlements to annual holidays, dismissal allowances and seniority allowances on a pro-rata basis to the entitlements of full-timers.
The Community justifies convergence in respect of social security protection and other indirect wage costs on the grounds that this will reduce distortions in competition.
It should be noted that the introduction of a common eight-hours threshold, without further earning thresholds, would affect especially the German and British social security system and labour law and - in some other countdes only - the unemployment insurance system. Especially in Germany and the United Kingdom, an eight-hours requirement would exclude considerably fewer ernployees from social security protection than
the present regulation does. For, Britain, a study based qn the 1986 Labour Force Survey indicated that a uniform eight hours' requirement would exclude almost half a million employees, virtually all of them warnen, from statutory rights. The same study gave a figure of 2A million people excluded from contributory schemes because of the lower earnings Iimit now ( cf. Hakim 1989). The conversion of the social security exclusion to an hourly basis would thus be a move away from the poverty trap which catches part-timers.
A critical analysis of the 1983 drafts shows nevertheless that the latterare but a pale reflection of the earlier drafts ( cf. Hepple 1990b ). The author points to the fact that:
u equal treatment of part-time and full-time workers does not include wages and working conditions. The Commission justifies the exclusion of these major forms of discrimination by the fact that wages and working conditio:IJ.s sliould be determined by the two sides of industry.
Differences in wage levels and working conditions do not - according to the Commission - "hamper the operation of healthy competition in the Community". The directive seeks to equalise only some costs of social protection and indirect wage costs, such as holidays, dismissal allowance and seniority allowances. It will still be permissible to discriminate against part-timers in respect of matters such as the content of work, remuneration, work schedules, health and safety.
- there is no protection for the trade union rights of part-time workers.
The 1990 draft deals only with the inclusion of part-time (arid temporary) workers in the calculation of the threshold at which
"national provisions require the setting up of workers' representative bodies within the undertaking". As was shown aföre part-time workers with fewer than 14 hours a week are excluded from passive and active rights concerning workers 'representative' bodies in the Netherlands -there is no requirement to change this regulation as a result of the EC directive. The draft does not include any duty to consult workers' representatives on the us-e of part-time and temporary employees as was stated in the 1983 draft.
already being re-examined. The other two directives remain stalled, despite proposals to drop one of their most controversial provisions -guaranteeing all employees, whatever their contractual status and working time, access to all social benefits. The two countries opposing these directives are Germany and the United Kingdom, countries in which the directive would involve major changes in nationallaws.
5.2 Other EC regulations concerningPart-Time Employment
The only legal way until now to challenge discrimination against part-time workers was t-o use the various directives concerning the equality of men and warnen. The European Court of Justice has decided in several cases in favour of part-time working warnen, who were discriminated against in terms of sick pay, pension schemes or career advancement. It was stated, mostly concerning German cases, that
- a company which excludes employees working 10 hours a week or less from the right to sick pay from the employer acted discriminatority because of the adverse impact upon warnen,
- the rules concerning career advancement in the public sector requiring from part-time workers double the length of service as from full-timers, are in breach of the Equal Treatment Directive.
These decisions are undoubtly of great importance for part-time working women in several EC countries, because it .enables them to challenge (under Article 119) discrimination in respect of a whole range of statutory benefits from which those working "short" part-time are excluded, such as redundancy payments, sick payments etc.
But the process of legislation is rather complex and has a lot of limitations ( cf. Hepple 1990b ). Hepple comes to the conclusion that equal pay and
treatment regulations are limited to camparisans between men and warnen, and it therefore does not help partqtimers who are in female ghettos of unskilled and semiqskilled jobs. Nor does it promise to open
part~time working for men as weil as for women who want it (cf. Hewitt 1990).
5.3 Conclusions
W·hile governments have encouraged employers and employees to offer and to accept part-time work~ little progress can be observed in integrating part-time work into legally collectively regulated schemes. The substitution of fullqtime work by eheaper and unprotected part-time workers seems in some countdes still to be an extremely profitable management tool. Only the equalisation of wages and work conditions will make this Substitution less profitable? and allow people to work part-time on a ."voluntary" basis.
Part-time work poses protection problems for many workers. The exclusion from social security protection and labour law regulations creates incentives for employers, but they create a nurober of disadvantages for individuals and society. Women's inferior status is reinforced and the legal rights to equal treatment and equality of opportunities are undermined. The main reason why part-time workers do not receive better treatment seems to be because they are mostly women.
Warnen provide the flexibility that is needed to cope with structural change, including cost saving and rising productivity.
List of Tables~ Charts and Synopses
Tables
Table 1: Developments of Employment (total and part-time shares) Table 2: Part-Time Shares Men/Women (1975/1981/1985/1987) Table 3: Fernale Employment Developments (1975-1987)
Table 4: Part-Time by Broad Age Groups (1983/1985/1987)
Table 5a Fernale Part-Time Employment by Economic Activity 1987 Table Sb: Male Part-Time Employment by Economic Activity 1987 Table 6: Part-Time Employees by Occupatiop (male/female) 1987 Table 7: Part-Time Development by Economic Activity (1983-1987) Table 8: Socio-Economic Characteristics of Part-Time Employees
(1983/1987)
Table 8a: Age Structure of Part-Time Employed (1983/1987) Table 9: Reasons for Working Part-Time (1983/1987)
Table 10: Job Search of Part-Time Employees (1983/1988) Table 11: Temporary and Permanent Part-Time Employment
(1983/1988)
Table 12: "Short" and "Long" Part-Time (Male/female) 1983/1988 Table 13: Development of Part-Time Employment by Groups of Hours
(1983-1988)
Table 14: Distribution of "Short" Part-Time by NACE
groups-Men/Women (1988) · ·
Table 15a: Proportion "Short" and "Long" Part-Time by NACE groups-Men- 1988
Table 15b: Proportion "Short" and "Long" Part-Time by NACE groups-Women- 1988
Table 16: Socio-Economic Characteristics of "Short'' Part-Time Employees (1983 and 1988)
CO H
Source: European labour Force Surveys
Table 1
Developmemts of Employment (total and part-time shares) 1)
Persens in Empioyment
Germany Denmark France U. Kingdom
lotai part-time total part-time total part-time total part-time
(1000) (%) {1000) (%) (1000) (%) (1000) . {%)
0"1 00
Belgium Germany
1975 1981 1985 1987 1975 1981 1985 1987 Part-Time Employed
as a proportlon of:
- total employed 4.9 6.4 8.6 9.9 11.2 12.0 12.8 12.7
- male employed 1.0 1.3 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.6 2.0 2.0
- femaie employed 12.9 16.3 21.1 24.2 26.7 28.9 29.6 29.5 Women's share in all
part-time employed 85.1 85.8 86.1 87.5 89.6 91.9 90.5 90.5
France United Kingdom
1975 1981 1985 1987 1975 1981 1985 1987 Part-Time Employed
as a proportion of:
- total employed 8.2 8.3 10.9 11.7 17.1 17.9 20.9 21.9
- male employed 3.0 2.3 3.2 3.5 2.3 3.1 4.3 5.3
- female employed 16.7 17.4 21.8 23.0 41.0 40.0 44.3 44.6 Women's share in all
part-time employed 78.0 83.3 83.0 82.5 91.5 89.6 88.0 86.2
Source: European labour Force Surveys
Denmark I
1975 1981 1985 1987
21.2 23.7 24.3 24.2 4.7 5.6 8.4 9.3 45.1 46.5 44.0 42.2 86.8 86.9 81.1 79.2
Netherlands 1975 1981 1985 1987
8.7 21.8 22.4 29.4 2.4 9J 7.6 13.8 28.8 49.0 51.0 57.2 81.4 69.4 77.6 70.0
-I 0 (j)
Belgium
Growth of 1975 1987
female employment (1 000) (1000}
Total 1,i52 1,242
Fuii-Time 1,003 942
Part-Time 149 300
France
Growth of 1975 1987
female empioyment (1 000) (1 000)
Total 8,228 8,987
Fuli-Time 6,858 6,883
Part-Time 1,370 2,066
Source: European labour .Force Surveys
FRG
(change 1975 1987 (change
in%) (1 000) (1 000) in%}
7.8 9,498 10,380 9.3
-6.1 6,962 7,319 5.1
101.3 2,536 3,061 20.7
U. Kingdom
(change 1975 1987 (change
in%) (1 000) (1000) in%)
9.2 9,122 10,534 15.5
0.4 5,379 5,799 7.8
50.8 3,743 4,696 25.5
Denmark
1975 1987 (change
(1000) (1 000) in%)
917 1,198 30.6
503 693 37.8
414 505 22.0
Netherlands I
I
1975 1987 {change
(1 000) (1000) in%)
I I
1,245 2.102 68.8
887 888 0.1
358 1,202 235.8
Beigium Germany Denmark
Proportion 1 983 1985 1987 1983 1985 1987 1983 1985 1987 .
part-time of •
ail employees male femaie male female male female male female male female male female male female male female male female in the age groups
. 14- 24y. 3.8 14.7 5.2 18.0 5.2 22.5 1.5 6.0 1.3 6.1 L4 5.9 20.2 30.2 24.5 37.3 27.7 38.9
I
I
•·
25 - 49 y. 1.4 20.4 1.0 21.7 1.2 24.6 0.9 36.7 1.6 36.1 L6 35.1 2. 7 44.5 2. 7 41.8 3.6 39.950- 64 y. 1.9 23.2 1.9 23.3 1.9 23.8 1.6 35.9 2.0 37.7 2.0 40.5 4.8 54.4 4.2 57.9 4.1 55.2
__ 65 y. and more 18.8 37.5 30.8 0.0 o.o o.o 39.4 55.7 35.6 54.4 36.7 54.2 20.5 46.7 32.6 76.9 35.1 62.5
France United Kingdom Netherlands
Proportion 1983 1985 1987 1983 1985 1987 1983 1985 1987
part-time of
all employees male fema:Je male female male femaie male female male female male female male female male female male female in the age groups
14-24y. 4.5 14.4 7.6 18.6 10.6 24.4 6.0 15.9 8.6 19.6 11.0 20.5 11.0 22.0 14.4 28.5 29.7 39.6
25-49 y. 1.4 19.6 1.7 21.0 1.7 21.3 1.0 47.1 1.2 49.9 1.7 50.2 5.3 59.9 5.9 58.2 8.9 62.8
50-64 y. 3.0 25.2 3.8 26.6 3.7 27,3 2.6 51.1 3.3 55.3 4.4 54.9 7.5 66.1 7.4 66.7 14.1 70.0
65 y. and more 37.6 39.2 39.1 38.7 37.5 45.3 57.9 74.5 66.3 79.2 58.1 83.1 46.4 55.6 44.4 57.1 55.8 63.6
Source: European labour Force Surveys
:·-J
(1) female employees (full-time and part-time) by economic activity (NACE groups) (2) femaie part-time employees by economic activity
Netherlands
(3) female part-time employees as percentage of all female employees in the NACE-group 1) totai f100% due to rounding errors.
- not available
1.
,
(1) male employees (full-time and part-time) by economic activity (2) male part-time employees by economic activity
Netherlands
(3) male part-time employees as percentage of all male employees in the NACE-group 1) total t= 1 00% due to rounding errors
- not available
Source: European Labour Force Surveys
Belgium
~ (j)
1 professionalltechnical
2 administrative and manageriai 3 clerical and related
4 sales workers 5 service workers 6 agricult., forestry
7 prod. workers and related 0 no answer
total
Source: European Labour force Survey
FRG France Netherlands Belgium
u.
Kingdomm. f. m. t m. f. m. f. m. f.
32.5 15.9 23.3 15.7 33.5 24.8 20.6 28.5 10.9 13.4
4.0 0.5 0.6 0.0 3.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 2.5 u
13.7 34.6 12.1 29.7 9.3 21.6 13.4 25.4 14.5 24.0
6.4 14.7 3.2 6.5 17.8 12.5 6.4 10.7 16.9 15.9
10.9 23.3 18.2 41.5 8.1 32.9 17.3 29.0 18.1 36.3
2.6 0.5 6.8 1.0 2.8 0.9 1.9 0.5 7.8 0.8
25.8 9.4 35.8 5.6 23.5 6.7 39.8 5.8 29.3 8.5
6.7 1.4 - - 1.4 0.2 - - -
-100.0 -100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Denmark
m. f.
16.3 22.7 0.2 0.1 6.3 18.2 8.8 10.6 13.0 19.2 3.9 0.3 30.8 7.6 20.8 21.4
100.0 100.0
FRG France Netherlands Belgium U. Kingdom Denmark
male female male female male female male female male female male female
Growth oi 59.550 239.100 109.070 470.800 286.940 352.290 1.960 2) 81.870 282.120 . 1.068.480 41.780 27.290
p.-1. empioymenl absolut 1)
NACE-groups with o!her services oiher services otherserv. oiherserv. Irade/hotels other serv. lrans./comm. olher serv. Irade/holeiS other serv. Irade/ holels banking/lin.
highesl proportion 75,9% 64,9% 39,5% 49,2 24,4 50,8% 31,9% 45,1% 37,2% 43,0% .48,2%
oi1JroWih in %
banking!fin. banking/lin. publicad. publicad. olherserv. trade!hotels public ad. tradelho!eiS publicad. Irade/hotels olher serv. o!her serv.
11,3% 11,3% 27,1% 17,9% 18,5% 26,4% 23,6% 30,6% 17,8% 21,3% 39,1%
transp./comm. lransp./comm. lransp./comm. Irade/holeis banking!lin. banking/lin. Irade/holeis publicad. other serv, banking/lin. other manuf. othermanul.
9,3% 8,9% 10,8% 15,3% 11,8% 11,2% 18,9% 23,3% 9,0% 17,5% 12,0%
Proportion ol 96,5% 85,1% 77,4% 82,4% 54,7% 88,4% 74,4% 79,0% 64,0% 81,8% 99,3%
these groups ol total growth
- - - -
··-·-1) Nel-growth over all NACE-groups
2) ln Belgium lhe number oi male p.-1. workers is so small, we thereiore did nol calculaie the percentages
Source: European labour Fource Surveys
\0 0"1
i
FRG France Netheriands !Belgium U. Kingdom
Percentage of all
r-0'\
Table 8 a
Age Structure of Part-Time Employed 1983 and 1987
FRG France Netherlands Belgium United Kingdom
1983 1987 1983 1987 1983 1987 1983 1987 1983 1987
Source: European Labour Force Survey 1983 and 1987, includes all employed persons, unpaid family workers (except UK) and se!f-employed.
Denmark
:0 :n
FRG 2) Netheriands Belgium Uo Kingdom 1984 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988
Men:
-school !training 39.9 26.3 8.2 25.9 16.5 11.5 28.2 34.7
- illness I disab. 9.2 7.1 4.7 5.3 7.2 3.9 . 3.8 2.8
- no fA. avaiiabie 12.7 13.8 2.2 16.8 23.7 48.3 18.5 23.5
- no f.-t. wished 19.5 24.9 10.6 2.1 3.7 9.4 33.2 21.6
- other reasons 18.8 27.9 0.8 10.4 10.1 22.6 14.9 13.5
- no answer
- -
73.5 3) 39.5 3) 36.8 4.2 1.5 4.0Women:
-schooi I training 8.3 6.1 1.8 9.7 1.7 0.8 4.3 5.9
- illness I disab. 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.4 0.9 0.8
- no f.-t avai!ab!e 6.8 6.6 3.5 27.5 25.0 33.6 8.1 7.0
- no t-t wished 65.3 71.3 33.9 40.3 45.4 13.3 75.6 67,3
- other reasons 18.2 14.8 0.3 9.8 12.9 46.7 9.4 14.7
- no answer -
-
59.2 3) 11.1 3) 13.7 4.1 1.7 4.41) This question is not reported for France 2) FRG since 1984
3) The high percentage "no answer" does not allow proper interpretations Source: European labour Force Surveys
Denmark ! 1983 1988
i
59.4 67.2 2.8 2.7 16.7 8.0 10.1 21.9 7.0 0.1 3.9 0.0
9.8 19.3 2.1 0.9 10.6 12.2 68.2 67.6 4.3 0.0 4.9 0.0
·
-0'1
(j)
FRG France Metherlands Belgium
1983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988
of all p.-t. ~mployed
men (in%):
- did not Iook foranother job 86.1 86.2 84.0 72.7 81.2 81.4 79.7 73.8 - looked for another job because
- insecurity 0.9 4.6 1.0 1.7 4.7 1.1 4.1 2.3
- transitional job 5.3 3.4 7.8 14.5 4.9 2.3 10.2 15.0
- second job 0.3 0.1 1.2 1.0 0.8 2.3 2.2 0.4
- better working conditions 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 5.6 6.8 1.8 4.9
- other reasons 6.1 2.6 1.8 3.4 1.8 2.7 . 1.6 2.1
- without reasons 0.3 0.0 1.2 3.2 0.5 1.1 0.4 0.1
of all p.-t. employed women (in %):
- did not Iook for another job 97.4 96.7 88.9 84.1 88.8 86.1 87.2 89.2 - looked for another job because
- insecurity 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.0 2.4 0.7 2.7 1.9
- transitional job 0.5 0.8 3.3 5.3 1.8 1.6 5.4 4.5
- second job 0.1 0.1 1.4 1.9 0.8 1.5 0.5 0.6
- better working conditions 0.6 1.0 3.3 3.6 4.1 6.7 2.4 2.1
- other reasons 0.9 0.7 1.7 2.1 1.3 1.9 1.5 1.2
- without reasons
-
- 0.7 1.9 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.6Source: European Labour Force Surveys
U. Kingdom Denmark 1983 1988 1983 1988
83.8 79.5 85.7 87.1 '
3.1 4.7 2.5 0.4 7.7 4.0 3.2 1.1 1.6 3.1 0.7 0.3 1.7 6.0 5.0 4.9 1.4 2.6 2.9 6.2
0.4 0.1 -
-I I
I
94.0 93.1 94.1 92.8
1.2 0.7 1.1 0.1 2.2 0.6 0.8 1.3 0.5 1.1 0.2 0.1
1.2 3.5 1.6 4.3
0.5 0.9 2.1 1.4
0.2 0.0 0.1
-,.-
8
FRG France Netherlands Belgium
1984 1988 1983 1988 1983 11988 1983 11988
-FRG France Netherlands Belgium U. Kingdom Denmark
1983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988
Proportion Part-Time m. I. m. I. m. '- m. f. m. f. m. f_ m. I. m. f. m. f. m. f. m. !. m. I.
Employees wlth:
1-10hr's. 15.01) 11.21) 17.7 9.8 1.7 14.0 7.0 10.4 20.0 27.5 38.0 31.0 9.5 10.1 18.0 10.2 31.7 22.2 34.3 22.8 33.9 8.6 52.5 17.0
11 - 15 hrs. - - 12.2 8.6 6.3 11.1 6.2 9.1 6.7 15.8 9.6 14.5 6.7 9.1 8.0 9.9 16.2 17.2 16.5 17.8 21.3 11.8 19.1 9.7
16-19 hrs. 40.21) 50.0 1) 11.5 5.4 5.9 10.8 6.4 9.3 4.8 7.7 6.6 10.4 22.0 17.5 12.4 18.9 9.5 12.4 10.1 13.6 3.3 6.1 4.8 4.7 20-29 hrs. 24.9 33.2 44.4 62.3 31.6 37.1 41.6 40.1 32.2 38.0 33.3 32.2 33.6 51.5 39.9 47.9 27.2 37.0 29.8 35.3 25.3 50.3 16.9 41.9 30 hrs. and more 19.8 5.6 14.2 13.9 28.2 16.6 18.7 21.3 16.0 10.4 12.4 11.9 27.7 11.0 21.3 12.7 13.9 10.5 9.0 10.3 11.1 20.0 6.1 26.0
no reg. working time - - -
-
18.2 9.2 17.5 8.4 - - - - 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 - - - - 5.1 0.0 3.2 0.0"Short" part-time
(1 - 15 hrs./ week) 15,0 1) 11.2 29.9 18.4 14.0 15.1 13.2 19.5 26.7 43.3 47.6 45.5 16.2 19.2 26.0 20.1 47.9 39.4 50.8 40.6 55.2 20.4 71.6 26.7
"long" part-time
( > 20 hrs./ week} 44.9 38.8 58.8 76.2 59.8 53.7 60.3 61.4 48.2 48.4 45.7 44.1 61.3 62.5 61.2 60.6 41.1 47.5 38.8 45.6 36.4 70.3 23.0 67.9
1) 1983 in the FRG 11-19 hours in one category.
Source: European Labour Force Surveys
N
0
".--•short" part-tim~
1 - 15 hrs.
16-19 hrs.
"long" part-time
20 hrs. and more
total
* Index 1983
=
1001} FRG figures 1984.
FRG 1) m. 1.
185 118
231 145
72 112
98 114
Source: European labour Force Surveys
France
m. f.
143 104
165 114
152 153
151 134
Netherlands Beigium U. Kingdom
m. f. m. f. m. f.
423 157 168 148 186 124
326 203 60 152 187 132
159 i36 105 137 165 116
237 149 105 141 176 120
Denmark m. f.
200 139
224 82
98 102
155 106
r-1 0
groups ol all p.-1. empioyees 81,0%
wllhln lhe hours group
France Netherlands Belgium U. Kingdom Denmark
1-10 hrs. 11-15hrs. 1-10 hrs. 11-15hrs. 1-10 hrs. 11-15hrs. 1-10 hrs. 11-15 hrs. 1-10 hrs. 11-15 hrs.
Distribution of "Short" Part-Time by NACE Groups- Women -1988
France Netherlands Belgium U. Kingdom Denmark
I
:5
lf)
---(1) short (1-15 hrs) part-time as percentage of all female part-timers in the NAGE group (2) lang (20 hrs and more) part-time as percentage of ali female part-timers in the NAGE group
- not available
Source: European labour Force Surveys
Belgium
:>
France Netherlands Belgium U. Kingdom Denmark
198l 1988 1983 1988 t983 1988 1983 1988 1983 1988
-Charts
Chart 1: Fernale Labour Force Participation and Part~ Time Development (1975-1987)
Chart 2: Total, Full-Time and Part-Time Fernale Workforce Participation Rates ( 1984) ·
Chart 3: Fernale Labour Force Participation Rates by Age, 1967~1987
Chart 4: Part-Time Employed Warnen as a Proportion öf all Employees in the Economic Sectors (1987)
Chart 5: Part-Time Fernale Labour Supply (1979) and its Tax-Treatment (1974-1978)
Chart 6: Part-Time Employment and Poliey Regulation
1
Chart 7a: "Short" and "Lang" Part-Time as a Proportion of Male and Fernale Part-Time Employment (1983/1988) Federal Republic of Germany
Chart 7b: "Short" and "Lang" Part-Time as a Proportion of Male and Fernale Part-Time Employment (1983/1988) France Chart 7c: "Short" and "Lang" Part-Time as a Proportion of Male and
Fernale Part-Time Employment (1983/1988) Netherlands Chart 7d: "Short" and "Long" Part-Time as a Proportion of Male and
Fernale Part-Time Employment (1983/1988) Belgium Chart 7e: "Short" and "Lang" Part-Time as a Proportion of Male and ·
Fernale Part~Time Employment (1983/1988) United · Kingdom
Chart 7f: "Short" and "Long" Part-Time as a Proportion of Male and Fernale Part-Time Employment (1983/1988) Denmark
00 0 I
..-Labour Force 80 r Participafion
Rates (pop.
15-64y)in%
70
B-60
t
Fernale Labour Force Participation and Part ... Time Development 1975 .. 1987
\t
\
\ DK
\
\
\
/ /
ARG
50 ~
,...""
.".
.".
...
,..
"
.".,
,.
B
40 ~ ."".""
,..."..-- ,..."..-- ,..."..-- ,..."..-- NL
~".,.
. .
. . . .
30
10 20 30 40
Source: OECD- Labour Force Stafistics, Paris 1990
..
~
."" ."... " " . " "
I
.
50 60
Fernale Part-Time Ernploy-ment as a Proportion of
Fernale Ernployment
;·
• •
.,
J: '
J
J
•
xto1
10
•
•
2
0
..
! ,!
... ;
.. ; ". ·. ·.! 0
.
..
GERMA.NY 014
BELGruM1H4
Source: Dale/Glover 1990
t
•
'
f: '
s
2
0
Xl~l
10
• ' '
2
0
;
.
lal4llile
nANCEltM
% NETHEFILANDS
Source: OECD 1988
_,., UNI'TED KINGDOM 100
1867 - - - - · 1872 _ .. _ 1171
... .., ... .., .. 1112 - - - • 1 t 6 7
.-- .--
..-FRG France Netherlands Belgium United Kingdom
lessthan5% energy /Water (2,4%) mineral/ehern. (1,6%) energy/water (2,8%) energy/water (1,2%) energy/water (2,6%)
building/engin. (3,8%} metal (1,6%) building/engin. {3,4%) building/engin. (1,4%) metal (4,5%)
metal {3,9%) building/engin. (1,9%) other manuf. (4,6%) mineral/ehern. (1,8%) mineral/ehern. (4,7%)
mineraUchem. (4,8%) energy/water (2,6%) transplcomm. (2,1%)
othermanuf. (4,6%) metal (2,7%)
other manuf. (3,7%)
5% to 10"/o agricullure (7,8%) transp./comm. (6,1%) minerailehem. (5,0%) publicad. (8,0%) transp./comm. {5,5%)
lransplcomm . (8,4%) agrlcuitu re (7,1%) transp./eomm. (7,9%) banking/fin. (9,9%) building/engin. (5,6%)
publiead. (9,7%) banking/lin. (8,8%} other manuf. (9,7%)
other manul. (9,8%)
10% lo 15% banking/lin. (13,5%) publicad. (12,0%) agriculture (10,3%} agricuiture (10,0%) publicad. (10,9%)
tradelhotels (12,1%) publicad. (10,3%) banking/fin. (13,8%)
banking/ (13,7%) agrieulture (14,0%)
15% to 20"/o Irade/hotels (18,4%) other serv. (18,8%} Irade/hotels (18,5%)
other serv. (18,9%)
20% to 30% other serv. (22,1%) Irade/hotels (24,2%)
more than 30% other serv. (40,9%) lradeliio!els (34,8%)
otherserv. (37,8%)
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
.
Source: European labour Force Surveys 1987.
Denmark
I
building/engin. (3,4%) energy/water (3,5%)
metal (5,3}
transp./eomm. (5,6%) i agriculture (8,8%) mineral/ehern. (9,4%)
other manui. (12,5%)
banking/lin. {15,6%) pubiicad. (19,4%)
Irade/hotels (23,2%)
other serv. (37,5%)
Tax Treatment 1974-1978
*
DENMARK
•
NORWAY
SWEOEN
•
UNITEO KINGDOM
•
-<1.04
UNITED STATES
*
*GERMANY
*AUSTRAIJA
CANAOA NETHEFILANOS
•
• •
JAPAN*
NEW ZEALANO*
FRANCEIRELAND
*
-<!.02
AUSTRIA
* ...._ B~LGIUM
LUXEMBOURG •
* *
FINLANO*
ITALY0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0;12 0.1~
1. The variable 'chaf'lg(l lt1 llousehok:l diSfXl!llillt IFoOOme' 11 thfl ehange in lhe na!Ural logarlthm of household dlsposal:lle lm:ome When the husband's grou umings ehallge lrom 1.33 to UlO of the Average Productiofl Worker Ievel and the wlfe's eamings change from 0.00 to 0.33 of tha Average Produelion Worker Ievel. ~lnce hausehold gross eamlngs ara unellanged, the
enanga in dlsposable II"ICOmt retlects 101ety tht chln;& ffl llablllty to ltlCOml tax and employae soeial &ecul'ity contributiona. For furlhtr ln1ormati0n on 111t
enanga in dlsposable II"ICOmt retlects 101ety tht chln;& ffl llablllty to ltlCOml tax and employae soeial &ecul'ity contributiona. For furlhtr ln1ormati0n on 111t