Detour: Rhawn Joseph on spirituality and sex

Drawing almost exclusively on the idea that limbic structures mediate sexual as well as spiritual states, Rhawn Joseph has developed a detailed theory concerning the sexual connotations routinely encountered in religions. While the link between religion and MSCs is not a linear one, it is certainly present. I hence consider it useful to give an overview of his basic idea.

Joseph starts by rhetorically asking – why the obvious concern about sex, pro or contra, in religious thought? His answer, as one might expect, is that sexuality, as well as the capacity for religious and mystical experiences or the ability to derive pleasure from eating and drinking, is mediated by the limbic system – the hypothalamus, amygdala and temporal and frontal lobes.⁷⁷

According to Joseph, sexuality is a central concern of most major religions.

It is also a major concern of the limbic system. In fact, almost all major religions and their gods act either to promote sexuality or to suppress it (and women in particular). Joseph notes that this should not be entirely surprising since many religions were originally concerned with the fertility of the fields and the abundance of prey (note that Joseph relies on the limbic association of concerns for sex and food discussed in the beginning of this chapter). Religious rituals, then, evolved accordingly. Many modern mystical and religious practi-ces involve the ritual control over both sex and food. Hence the commandments of the type “Thou shalt not…” According to Joseph, these are limbic taboos, because eating and sexuality (as well as murder and violence the Ten Commandments are to uproot) are under limbic control.⁷⁸

Joseph repeatedly emphasizes that sex and food (along with fear, rage, and aggression) are probably the most powerful of all limbic emotions and motivators, and, when harnessed or stimulated, they can completely overwhelm or control the brain and lead to limbic hyperactivation (note the obvious allusion to temporal-lobe-epilepsy-like discharges) coupled with religious or spiritual sensations, or, at a minimum, complex dreams or hallucinations.⁷⁹

By the way, the appeal to dreams and dreaming is of considerable im-portance in Joseph’s accounts on religious consciousness. He argues that the hippocampus and amygdala form a “reservoir” from which various images, emotions and memories can be drawn, including the imagery involved in the

76 A comment may be necessary as to what the role of this detour is within the context of the thesis (since one of the reviewers of the text got the impression that I am un-critically defending Joseph’s [inadequate] theory of religion – something I definitely am not doing). The point of the detour is to provide a somewhat precautionary example of the sweeping generalizations that have occasionally been drawn on the basis of the links discussed above. That these links should not be interpreted as linearly as in Joseph’s theory will become evident in chapters VII–VIII.

77 Joseph 2001, 124.

78 Joseph 2001, 121–122.

79 Joseph 2001, 122.

generation of religious states. The “otherwordliness” of such imagery is, according to Joseph, explained by the “dreamlike” quality of the nondominant hemispheric “consciousness”.⁸⁰ Obviously, then, Joseph – similarly to d’Aquili’s early writings and Persinger’s above statements – attributes MSCs to the right hemisphere. Significantly, in order to substantiate this latter position, Joseph refers to evidence from sleep research. He points out that there are reports on dreaming being abolished with right but not left temporal lobe destruction and then argues – there is a specific complementary relationship between dreaming sleep, hallucinations, mystical experiences and right temporal (including right amygdalar and hippocampal) electrophysiological activity, this activity presumably being epileptic-like.⁸¹

But back to the main line of the argument. Joseph contends – given that human populations have always been so concerned with obtaining food and sex partners, it is not surprising that many of the earliest religious beliefs and rituals were centered around trying to increase the abundance of game animals as well as preserving their own progeny. In substantiating this idea, he notes that many an ancient Upper Paleolithic cave was decorated with fertility and sex symbols, including pregnant women (Venus figures) and animals, whereas Egyptian tombs contain numerous paintings of food.⁸²

According to Joseph, these ancient hunter-gatherer concerns for fertility and food live on in more modern religions. These, too, tend to be very sexual and

“limbic” in orientation (even if not in origin). In the great religions of India and China, the gods engage in sexual activities and similar sexual activities are promoted among the believers. Joseph notes that the Vedas are greatly concerned not only with the worship of various nature gods but also with the rituals of sexual union. Ancient Indian religious texts are filled with love charms and instructions about how to win the love of a man or woman or how to protect against demons. Temple prostitutes were quite common throughout India and the Middle East as well as in Rome and Greece. And – sexuality and desire, like religious feelings, are directly mediated by the amygdala and hypothalamus.⁸³

Joseph then points out that, occasionally, sexual intercourse itself has been used as a religious ritual – as, for example, among Hindus and Buddhists who practised tantra. Tantric practices were inspired by visions of cosmic sex and highly concerned with sexual energy. It was through tantra that one might be confronted with the cosmic mystery of creation as exemplified by another deity, Shakti, the divine mother.⁸⁴

80 Joseph 2001, 111.

81 Joseph 2001, 112 (the report specifically meant in Joseph’s discussion is: Bakan, P.

Dreaming, REM Sleep and the Right Hemisphere. – Journal of Altered States of Consciousness, Vol. 3, 1977, 285–307).

82 Joseph 2001, 122.

83 Joseph 2001, 122–123.

84 Joseph 2001, 123.

Ancient Chinese and Taoist religions are also quite sexual according to Joseph. He points specifically at the concepts of Yin and Yang which appeared about 3,000 years ago and which represented the male and female principles of the universe. Sexual intercourse, then, was viewed as a symbolic union of the earth and heaven, which were believed to mate during rainstorms.⁸⁵

Joseph then discusses Judaism and Christianity and finds that the influences of limbic sexuality are quite clear in these traditions as well. Among other aspects, he points out that God, when angry, used explicit sexual imagery in condemning the people of Israel, repeatedly threatening to “strip them naked”

and referring to them as a “whore” (Hosea 2). Moreover, sexual behavior seems to be of tremendous concern to God. Why else, Joseph asks, the commands of sexual moral obedience or sayings such as be fruitful and multiply?⁸⁶

The general tone of Joseph’s writing is quite sharp and somewhat “reductio-nist”. His conclusion may, therefore, seem a little unexpected – it could be argued, he says, that the evolution of the neuronal spiritual, mystical, religious capacity is the consequence of repeated and exceedingly intense perceptual and emotional experiences with God and the spiritually sublime over many gene-rations. Homo sapiens – perhaps under the guiding influence of God, perhaps after repeated experiences with spirits, demons, angels and lost souls – has evolved these limbic neurons that enabled her to better cope with the unknown as well as to perceive and respond to spiritual messages that increased the likelihood of survival. A true scientist, Joseph argues, would not rule out such a possibility. Regardless of how or why, it is clear that there is in fact a scientific and neurological foundation for religious and spiritual experience. The reason for this is yet to be determined. Indeed, given the obvious role of the temporal lobe and limbic system in the generation and perception of myriad spiritual states, it appears (at least at the level of metaphor) that the limbic system may well be the neural transmitter to God.⁸⁷

This latter point is intriguing because it seems to suggest that humans may have evolved specific “God neurons” located within the generally food-and-sex oriented limbic structures (this explaining why any religion will always gain sexual undertones). This would resemble what Varela and colleagues (among others) have called the “grandmother cell” doctrine – the idea that there is a correspondence between concepts (such as the concept someone has of her grandmother) and specific neurons. Varela and colleagues note that even though this extreme view is waning in popularity, the basic idea that the brain is an information-processing device that responds selectively to features of the environment remains the dominant core of modern neuroscience.⁸⁸

The situation is even more curious because Joseph himself directly critiques theories that posit the existence of specific “God-spots” in the brain, arguing

85 Joseph 2001, 123.

86 Joseph 2001, 124.

87 Joseph 2001, 132–133.

88 Varela et al. 1991, 44.

that, “[T]here are no “demon” (or, for that matter, “God”) neurons but rather neural assemblies that interact under certain conditions to produce halluci-nations and feelings of God and the spiritual Hereafter.”⁸⁹ Perhaps, then, one ought to think of the passage in question as meant to point at the need to keep the door open to new possibilities. Meanwhile – according to the above – one is to acquiesce with the knowledge that, because of its basis in the limbic system, religious fervor will forever be imbued with carnal desire.

D. ROUND-UP

It might seem at this point that there is no need for further analysis and that the MSC-orgasm link is exposed clearly enough. Parallelism in the neural pro-cessing of MSCs and orgasmic experiences is obvious on the temporo-limbic level. Most importantly:

• MSCs and orgasm seem to have the very same “foci of origin” in the nervous system (the right amygdala and hippocampus, the hypothalamus);

• the neural dynamics seem to involve the gradual spreading (via the “stair-case” phenomenon) of synchronous discharges in both MSCs and orgasm.

Since the majority of researchers of the neural substrates of MSCs have classified MSCs as basically temporo-limbic phenomena, there is a temptation to proclaim the case closed and move on to discussing the resulting religious implications.

In reality, though, there are more loose ends here than there are “tight knots”. To name just a few: as was already briefly noted in chapter V, co-activation or “spillover” states may not be nearly as unusual as previously thought: modes of autonomic control may not lie along a single continuum extending from parasympathetic to sympathetic dominance but rather distribute within a two-dimensional space.⁹⁰ If this is so, then much of the explanatory power of the coactivation of the ANS branches during both MSCs and orgasm vanishes into the thin air – at least if one tries to argue that the capacity for MSCs is an evolutionary byproduct of orgasm specifically.

Further, the positing of the hypothalamus as central in generating MSCs is based on indirect evidence. That this may be a stumbling block becomes evident from sex research. Based on similar indirect evidence, the hypothalamus is generally assumed to be the “prime mover” in orgasm. But recent direct data is contradictory in this respect.⁹¹ Hypothalamic involvement may only be necessary for the motivatory (and not consummatory) aspects of sexual behavior. This may mean that at least some of the above “clear” parallels are the result of oversimplifying both sexual function and MSCs and relying too heavily on the idea that specific brain areas have specific functions that can be unambiguously related to specific responses.

89 Joseph 2001, 132.

90 Berntson et al. 1991, 459–487.

91 Holstege et al. 2003 and Georgiadis et al. 2006 versus Komisaruk et al. 2006.

As alluded to above, God-spot theories downplay the degree to which the human brain is an integrated organ while overestimating the localization of functions. To a lesser degree, the same critique applies to attributing MSCs (and orgasm) to the limbic system. The importance of integrated neuronal networks in generating complex mental phenomena must not be underrated.⁹² As will become clear in the next chapter, the experience of orgasm also heavily depends on the coordinated interplay of many cortical areas, just as do MSCs. The more or less undebated fact that epileptic-like “kindling” in subcortical limbic areas of the right temporal lobe can elicit both orgasmic sensations and mystical states cannot be interpreted to mean that those temporal areas are all there is to orgasms and MSCs.

Last but not least, even though it is clear that more or less close neural parallels do exist between orgasms and MSCs, this per se says little about the evolutionary “story” behind these parallels. It is, indeed, reasonable to argue that the sexual-response-related functions of the ANS and limbic system evolutionarily predate their “transcendent” or MSC-related functions. But a case for orgasm providing an evolutionary prototype for MSCs is not so clear.

Elisabeth Lloyd, for example, argues that human female orgasm has no adaptive function.⁹³ Komisaruk and colleagues go even further, showing that a similar case can be made for the male orgasm, because the latter cannot be conflated with its accompanying physiological signs such as ejaculation.⁹⁴ Unfortunately, Newberg and d’Aquili’s argumentation on MSCs being an evolutionary byproduct of orgasm hinges on just such a conflation. And, as to Lloyd’s point – how can one attribute the evolutionary origin of a state to another that itself has no adaptive function?

So far, then, the results are inconclusive. It is time to follow another lead: the hint that the language of the mystics is reminiscent of orgasmic imagery, suggesting that one ought to find parallels between MSCs and orgasm on the cortical level as well (since language is a characteristically cortical function).

This means engaging functional neuroimaging data on orgasm and MSCs into the discussion. As I hope to show in the next two chapters, this type of data both confirms the suspicion that the above described parallels should not be overestimated and offers a way to come up with a refined hypothesis on the nature and origin of MSCs in relation to orgasm.

92 For a critique of both God-spot and MSCs-as-limbic-phenomena theories, see:

Newberg & Waldman 2006, 297–298.

93 Lloyd, Elisabeth A. The Case of the Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evo-lution. Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London (UK), Harvard University Press, 2005.

94 Here is the argument: ejaculation cannot be conflated with orgasm. There is a diffe-rence between the physical act of ejaculation and the feeling of orgasm. While ejacu-lation is necessary for reproduction, the feeling of orgasm is not. No adaptive function has actually been demonstrated for men’s orgasm. Consequently, there is no better adaptational explanation for the existence of the male orgasm than there is for the fe-male orgasm (Komisaruk et al. 2006, 12).

CHAPTER VII. NEUROIMAGING MSCs AND ORGASMS: MIXING IN THE NEOCORTICAL

PARALLELS

A. FUNCTIONAL BRAIN IMAGING DURING MSCs

§ 1. An interlude concerning a remark made in chapter V

I noted in chapter V that, with one significant exception, Newberg and d’Aquili’s linking of MSCs to orgasm is based on analogies observable in the ANS and limbic interactions. It is now time to discuss that one exception. It offers a fitting introduction to studying the neocortical parallels between MSCs and orgasm while also providing some methodological guidance as to how to actually proceed with such an analysis.

The passage in question is found in d’Aquili’s 1986 Zygon paper on the Jungian archetypal hypothesis. Its uniqueness consists in the structure of the argumentation it contains – which is totally different from the rest of those concerning the MSC-orgasm link. Here, the link is defended via an appeal to similarities in the functioning of the right hemispheric PSPL during both states.

As usual, d’Aquili starts from asserting that MSCs are states during which the holistic operator (the PSPL on the nondominant side) functions in an

“absolute” manner (i.e., independently of input, this being a condition that can be induced via meditation, ritual behavior, starvation, hypoxia, prolonged sensory deprivation etc.). Continuing along his customary lines, d’Aquili argues that during such states the holistic operator generates a sensation of total wholeness and unity devoid of any specific content. But then comes something surprising: he refers to Paul Bakan’s EEG data¹ on increased activity in these areas during the “period of inevitability” just prior to and during orgasm. He notes that during orgasm there is often a brief period of the sense of obliteration of personal boundaries and of general wholeness, hurrying to add, though, that this is not meant as implying that MSCs are simply protracted orgasms. How-ever, he concludes, the activation of the same right brain centers does impart some of these characteristics to both states.²

This argument is a very different “beast” from those discussed so far. Its methodological suggestion is that one should expect directly comparable activity in the PSPL in both cases. Since the neuroimaging results reviewed in chapter IV suggest that during MSCs the PSPL deactivates, one should, on such bases, expect to find similar deactivations during orgasm.

Hence, the above passage legitimates the use of recent neuroimaging data on orgasm to further map the orgasm-MSC link. This is a highly relevant aspect

1 Bakan 1976, 68 (with further, unspecified references to Leonide Goldstein’s re-search).

2 D’Aquili 1986, 156.

since fundamental methodological objections can be raised against comparing orgasm-related cortical activations to those related to MSCs – on the grounds that MSCs are primarily states of complex mental activity while orgasms are primarily a result of sensory stimulation to which the mental correlates are secondary (or epiphenomenal). In addition to providing a clue as to what to be looking for, the passage above, thus, also shows that d’Aquili himself saw no problem in making direct use of the data on brain activations during orgasm in explaining MSCs.

While at it, I also find it appropriate to re-emphasize here a point made in both chapters V and VI – that direct sensory stimulation is not a sine qua non in orgasm and that it is the brain that triggers orgasm, not the genitalia. Moreover, to approach the matter from the other end, Newberg and d’Aquili have shown that MSCs, too, may be produced as a result of sensory stimulation (as, say, in Sufi dancing), although more typically they are generated in a “top down”

manner – via activity within the brain that then carries on down through the body via the sympathetic and parasympathetic efferents.³ Thus, the source of stimuli leading to either MSCs or orgasm, is not as all-important as it might seem at first glance.

In essence, then, the main effort of this chapter will be channeled towards analyzing the metabolic activity in the general region of Brodmann’s area (BA) 7 (i.e., the region of the PSPL – see Appendix for Brodmann’s relevant mapping) during orgasms and MSCs – via looking for an overlap of activation-and-deactivation patterns as mapped by functional brain imaging (PET, SPECT and functional MRI [fMRI]) studies.

§ 2. Reviewing the imaging results on MSCs

As B. Rael Cahn and John Polich point out in their recent data review on meditation, several authors have reported changes in the activity of the PSPL as associated with changes in the perception of self and non-self boundaries.⁴ However, the described dynamic of such changes varies from study to study.

There are also significant variations in the lists of brain areas found activated or

There are also significant variations in the lists of brain areas found activated or

Im Dokument of Sexual Response? (Seite 121-0)