Definition

4 Self-Regulated Learning (SRL)

application phase that includes monitoring and possible adaptation of strategies;

appraisal involves reflection on the performance which may mean revision if the process continues into further cycles (Nesbit & Winne, 2003). The extent to which students are able to self-regulate these phases influences the success of learning. This type of behaviour is essential in blended learning environments, and needs to be fostered, encouraged and modeled in such settings.

4.2 Background and History

The background of self-regulation is extensive, for it is essentially one of the main reasons why learning occurs. Recognition of the need to adapt and change according to a specific situation (in the case of SRL, a learning situation), and afterward taking the necessary action. This aspect of self-awareness and self-control can be traced back to philosophers, such as Descartes (1985) within the concept of conscious will and volition. From an educational perspective, elements of self-regulation can be found in major theoretical approaches that have evolved into the modern field of educational psychology, especially behaviourism and cognitivism.

4.2.1 SRL & Behaviourism

Self-regulation in the behaviouristic tradition can be described simply as overt responses resulting in specific behaviour. This can be shown by Pavlovian concept of regulatory influence (consider the classic example of animals that associate food with the ringing of a bell, evident in the occurring salivation even when no food is presented). Skinner (1965), in his Reinforcement Theory also incorporates self-regulation as a key aspect in his consideration of stimulus-response where behaviour depends on consequences taking the form of either reward (reinforcement) or punishment. One concrete form of self-regulation in this tradition is delay of

gratification (where immediate activity is denied for a greater future reward). In a learning context, the three phases are still present, but with different terminology: self-monitoring (deliberate attention to a specific behaviour, requiring regularity and proximity to performance); self-instruction (discriminative stimuli leading to reinforcement – such as arranging the learning environment); and self-reinforcement (a reward intended to lead toward repeat success, and therefore must be carefully selected).

From the behaviourist tradition it is evident that only active behaviour can be self-regulated.

Active or purposeful behaviour necessitates certain processes (see Figure 4.1 from Zimmerman) such as goal setting, goal directed, intentional, and conscious action.

The regulatory function is feedback, and without purposeful behaviour, there is no need for feedback (especially self-generated feedback). Feedback provides the impetus to adapt and change behaviour or to continue as before. Therefore, most important for education is the perception of cases of failure which produce negative feedback – a reason to behave differently.

The development of cybernetic research from the 1940’s provides an excellent example for illustrating this feedback principle through the TOTE method: TEST-OPERATION-TEST-EXIT. This method (see Figure 4.2) simulates the basic regulatory processes in an individual beginning with a TEST (assessing whether there is a discrepancy between the actual – now – state and the desired – future – state). This method acknowledges that an individual will only be active if there is a discrepancy (such as a mistake, failure, or confusion).

Test Operate

Exit

Test ^congruity

incongruity

Figure 4.2. TOTE Method (adapted from O’Connor & Van der Horst, 2006)

This figure portrays a basic sequence of this method. If, after the second TEST there is no discrepancy (congruity), then further testing is not necessary (EXIT); if discrepancy (incongruity) occurs, then further OPERATION is necessary. The sequence is repeated until there is no discrepancy (EXIT). Modern usage of this simple model is continuing with applications in neuro-linguistic-programming (NLP) as well as cognitive-neuro brain research.

According to Piaget (as cited in Cantor, 1983), behaviour is always conflict driven, which can be either internal or external. If there is no conflict, there is no activity – no activity, means no learning or self-regulation. Within SRL theory, the importance of a feedback loop is vital to the success of self-regulation. In order for optimal functioning, there must be a goal within the preparation phase; the performance phase must be monitored (monitored); and there must be reflection and self-evaluation occurring. Without these, SRL will simply not occur.

4.2.2 SRL & Cognitivism

From the tradition of cognitive psychology, issues of self-control and activity remain constant features as self-regulated learning is explored and examined. Whereas

behaviouristic researchers focus on the overt responses of an individual to specific stimuli, cognitive researchers emphasize the mental activities that are involved in specific behaviours. As in behaviourism, SRL from a cognitive perspective achieves significance for learners in the solutions it offers for resolving discrepancies, namely strategies and tactics. Weinstein and Meyer (1986) differentiate between strategies and tactics: strategies are plans oriented toward successful task performance; tactics are specific procedures that are implemented. According to their research, strategies for learning can be divided into either primary strategies (relating to content) or support strategies (non-content related aspects, such as climate). For example, consider content strategies dealing with learning material (e.g. rehearsal strategies): many tactics can be applied within this type of strategy (repeating information, underlining, summarizing, etc.). Yet before possible solutions can be considered, discrepancies or deficiencies in the learning task need to be identified.

Early research in cognitive psychology has put forward two specific types of deficiency: mediational (Reese, 1962) and production (Flavell et al., 1966). The mediational deficiency, according to Reese (1962) reflects a stage in a child’s development occurring when behaviour is not mediated (adapted or changed) verbally even though verbal processes are understood. Flavell’s production deficiency occurs when verbal mediation of behaviour is not spontaneous. Both studies involve primary school pupils learning a sequence of pictures through recall and rehearsal activities. The significant results of these studies state that spontaneous use strategies (such as rehearsal) improves performance (recall), training in strategy use can effectively increase performance. These findings have influence the field of cognitive psychology in SRL research as they prompted further examination of how to use knowledge of

childhood development to isolate specific skills for use in attaining learning goals (as in verbal skill development applied in the use of rehearsal strategies aiding memory goals).

Further research in the field has added another deficiency called continued use deficiency, which is based on the observation that some learners fail to use some strategies continuously stemming from inadequate understanding of the strategy.

These cognitive concepts have developed in terms of learner success, and achievement is considered not only in terms of success, but also from the perspective of under achievement (Borkowski, & Thorpe, 1994). This focus increases the need for research that is domain specific, since what works for one subject matter may not be successful when applied to other subjects.

Research on information processing is an example of a cognitive approach examining elements of attention, perception and memory (procedural strategies for encoding information into long-term memory) in self-regulated learning. This approach incorporates the important concept of metacognition (thinking about thinking).

Considerable research has been conducted in terms of developing reading ability.

Examining key elements in this domain helps to present an overview of important concepts from a cognitive information processing approach that is applied to other domains. Early research by Robinson (1946) developed and tested a method for successful reading called SQ3R (the letters stand for Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review). This method presents useful pre-reading strategies that support the challenging task of learning from texts. Students first survey a text (cursory reading or scanning) focusing mainly on headings and main ideas, afterward they develop questions. Next, they read the text again while keeping their self-generated questions in mind. Following this reading, students attempt to recall the information without referring to the text. A

final step is to return to the text and review the material checking for correct understanding. This has been a successful method in North America for many students.

In the 1980’s Dansereau (1979) developed a similar method focusing on post-reading activities. It requires students to expand the information offered in the text by relating it to other information creating links between memory networks, and it trains students to ask questions relating to meaning, critical thinking, and transfer of knowledge. Dansereau’s method moves beyond the SQ3R as it includes support strategies, such as goal-setting, concentration management (self-talk), monitoring and diagnosing, and finally re-reading. This is a great example of how SRL can be applied to the domain of reading and writing.

4.2.3 Learning Strategies

Many types of learning strategies have been identified and examined within the body of SRL research (see Weinstein & Meyer, 1986; Zimmerman & Pons, 1986 for detailed reviews). Early research developed many various categories of strategies including critical thinking and problem solving; monitoring and evaluation;

management of environment, effort and time; help and knowledge seeking, and many more. From the perspective of student success and achievement, the trend has been to identify strategies that can promote, predict or ideally lead to successful academic functioning (Paris & Newman, 1990; Nota, Soresi & Zimmerman, 2004; Schunk, 1993;

Garavalia & Gredler, 2002; Zimmerman & Pons, 1986). In order to achieve this research has focused on examining students who are “successful” or high-achievers and

“non-successful” or low-achievers (Ee, Moore, & Atputhasamy, 2003; Butler, 1998;

Purdie, Hattie & Douglas, 1996; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990).

The literature has produced interesting findings especially regarding the connection of motivation, SRL and achievement. Students who are highly motivated (intrinsic) do not necessarily achieve higher results or grades, but they do use different strategies. Furthermore, this literature has provided the insight that strategy use does not necessarily lead to better achievement, but rather it is the knowledge of choosing appropriate strategies for specific tasks along with knowing when and where to use them that really influences student learning outcome. In light of these findings, research on strategy use has also resulted in many efforts and programs to teach effective use of learning strategies (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986; McKeachie, Pintrich & Lin, 1985; Hofer

& Yu, 2003).

A practice in higher education arising from this research has been to implement supplementary courses on “learning to learn”. Strategies viewed as fundamental to academic success are taught, in the hope that students will recognize the value of such strategies and apply them to the various subjects and disciplines of their specific programs of study. Above all, the general phases within SRL (see Figure 4.1) are emphasized so that students become aware of and actively engage in these phases while learning (even developing and creating new strategies within the phases that have more meaning and impact on their own success and achievement).