Conversion or overexploitation of forests and other natural ecosystems:

The “Sarawak Syndrome”

The “Sarawak Syndrome” stands for the destruction or degradation of entire ecosystems (biomes), such as forests, savannas or marshlands. In Sarawak, a Malaysian province on the island of Kalimantan (Borneo) with an area of 124,500 km², large parts of the once abundant primary forest have been destroyed while the importance of the non-sustainable timber industry as a major source of income continues to increase.

A distinction must be made between destruction of the ecosystem with subsequent alternative utilisation (conversion) and overexploitation of virtually natural ecosystems if there is demand for individual services/ functions to an extent that exceeds the system’s natural regenerative capacity.

156 D 1.3.3 Main Syndromes of Soil Degradation

Figure 36:Syndrome-specific Global Network of Interrelations: The "Sarawak Syndrome" Automation, mechanisation Increase in efficiency

Reinforcement of national environm. protection Increased significance of NGOs

Participation

Democratisation Reinforcement of federalisms Social and economc marginalisation International agreements, setting up of intern. institutions Formation of supra- national consciousness

Reduction of cultural diversity Increasing ecological awareness

MigrationCommercialisation, spread of market economy Globalisation of marketsInternationalisation of production International debt service Destruction (structure, volume)

Loss of fertiliy (humus, nutrients) Erosion, morphological changes

Conversion of virtually natural ecosystems (forests, wetlands, etc.)

Overexploitation Lowering of groundwater level

Enhanced greenhouse effect Water pollution, eutrophication

Global and regional climate change

Changes of runoff on land areas Disruptions in sediment dynamics Expansion of agriculturally used land

Loss of biodiversity SCIENCE / TECHNOLOGY SOCIAL ORGANISATION

POPULATION PSYCHOSOCIAL SPHERE

ECONOMY TRANSPORTATION

BIOSPHEREHYDROSPHEREATMOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE / PEDOSPHERE

D 1.3.3 Main Syndromes of Soil Degradation 157

The “Sarawak Syndrome” can be found in the form of destruction of forest ecosystems in tropical regions, such as in the Amazon and India, while boreal zones in Canada, the U.S. and Russia are also affected. A special problem is the destruction of mountain forests in China (Tibet) and Nepal. The “Sarawak Syndrome” also encompasses destruction and degradation of savannas (e.g. in Zaire and Sudan) and marshlands (e.g. the Danube delta, the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Spain and the Menderes Valley in Turkey).

Clearing of tropical forests leads to large-scale and usually irreversible destruction of soils via nutrient eluviation and soil compaction (WBGU, 1994). Interventions in mountain forests are a severe problem. Tibet, for example, has lost roughly 45% of its forest area since 1965 (this corresponds to the entire forest area of the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany prior to 1989). Due to the steep relief, rapid runoff and pronounced flooding take place in the lowlands (example: Bangladesh 1991). Seven of Asia’s large rivers, which supply approx. 47% of the world’s population with water, have their source in Tibet. Interventions in Tibet’s water resources and the contamination of rivers and groundwater thus have, in some cases, disastrous consequences for almost half of humanity (ECO-Tibet, 1994).

This problem also becomes evident with the economic utilisation of the boreal coniferous forests. The Russian forests with an area of 5 million km²are roughly double the size of the rainforest region in the Amazon and thus correspond to approximately half of Europe’s land area. Since commencement of the radical transformation in Russia, foreign companies have been allowed to utilise the boreal coniferous forest for industrial purposes. Deforestation is carried out on a large scale with a so-called “harvesting machine” which is able to cut down an average of 300 trees an hour.

These heavy machines compact the soil and destroy the unusable saplings. Only half of the tree harvest is taken away for further processing. Contractually stipulated afforestation programmes are, as a rule, not carried out in exchange for acceptance of a, for the companies, negligible penalty. Because of the lack of tree cover, the permafrost ground can thaw, resulting in dessication, lowering of the groundwater level and greater methane emissions. As vegetation declines, one of the major sinks for the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is reduced. The wood harvested in Siberia, for example, is shipped to South Korea; the cellulose produced there goes to Japan and other parts of the world. Germany is the second largest consumer of Siberian wood worldwide.

A general consequence of the “Sarawak Syndrome” is disruption of the equilibrium between the biosphere and pedosphere due to soil degradation and the conversion of ecosystems. Reduction of biodiversity, erosion and large-scale losses in the surface, nutrient-rich soil layers as well as changes in the hydrological cycle can be regarded as the most important effects.

Potential remedies and remarks

In its 1993 Annual Report the Council described in detail the options for taking action regarding protection of natural vegetation, particularly in tropical forests. In this context the most important options are underlined again here:

● adoption of a Forest Convention that is locally binding,

● reinforcement and expansion of international forest protection programmes,

● inclusion of sustainable forestry in international trade agreements,

● implementation of compensation systems.

Conversion and overexploitation of virtually natural ecosystems can be additionally slowed down by expanding nature reserves (e.g. biosphere reserves) and by introducing agro-forestry strategies.

Additional reading:

Chisholm, A. and Dumslay, R. (Eds.) (1987): Land Degradation: Problems and Policies. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Enquete Commission “Preventive Measures to Protect the Earth’s Atmosphere” of the 11th German Bundestag (1990): Protecting the Tropical Forests. A High-Priority International Task. Bonn: Deutscher Bundestag.

Ives, J and Pitt, D. C. (Eds.) (1988): Deforestation: Social Dynamics in Watersheds and Mountain Ecosystems. New York:

Routledge.

158 D 1.3.3 Main Syndromes of Soil Degradation