4. Individual Behavior as Pathway between Early Life Shocks and Adult Health –
4.5 Conclusion
to the hunger episode after World War II16. As a consequence, these individuals changed their food spending behavior and thus hold worse levels of health later in life.
Tables and Figures
Table 4.1: German states by occupation zones
occupation zones states
French Rhineland-Palatinate, southern part of Baden Wuerttemberg US Bavaria, northern part of Baden-Wuerttemberg, Hesse, Bremen UK North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein Soviet Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Table 4.2: OLS regressions on months below 1500 kcal/day, ages 0-16, 0-4, 5-10, 11-16
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES hunger hunger hunger hunger
age 0-16 age 0-4 age 5-10 age 11-16
cal months below 1500 age 00-04 0.002**
[0.001]
cal months below 1500 age 05-10 0.007***
[0.001]
cal months below 1500 age 11-16 0.009***
[0.001]
cal months below 1500 age 00-16 0.006***
[0.001]
urban (at birth) 0.041 0.035** 0.033 0.010
[0.026] [0.016] [0.022] [0.018]
US zone (at birth) -0.009 -0.012 -0.002 -0.014
[0.048] [0.034] [0.041] [0.037]
UK zone (at birth) 0.039 -0.026 0.016 0.022
[0.047] [0.033] [0.040] [0.037]
Soviet zone (at birth) 0.038 -0.042 0.028 0.034
[0.048] [0.032] [0.042] [0.037]
constant 0.001 0.044 0.017 0.011
[0.045] [0.030] [0.038] [0.035]
observations 878 878 878 878
R-squared 0.075 0.023 0.092 0.140
Robust tandard errors in brackets, *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1;
Table 4.3: Construction of food share sample
sample description N
respondents that participated in wave 1 and wave 3 of SHARE 1,763
food share 1,071
only native born respondents 1,555
food share 938
with wave 2 information
food share 1,028
without outliers
food share 1,005
without respondents born before 1929
food share 923
Table 4.4: Engel curve estimation on self-reported hunger, median-income splines and interactions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES food share food share food share food share
log gross income -0.105*** -0.104*** -0.105*** -0.106***
[0.005] [0.005] [0.005] [0.006]
hunger age 00-16 0.366
[0.259]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(lo) -0.048 [0.033]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(hi) 0.003 [0.016]
hunger age 00-04 1.132**
[0.474]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(lo) -0.142**
[0.061]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(hi) -0.020
[0.038]
hunger age 05-10 0.292
[0.326]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(lo) -0.036
[0.042]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(hi) -0.007
[0.019]
hunger age 11-16 0.580**
[0.268]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(lo) -0.078**
[0.035]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(hi) 0.035**
[0.017]
constant 0.492* 0.639** 0.593** 0.554**
[0.251] [0.249] [0.250] [0.244]
observations 878 878 878 878
R-squared 0.518 0.526 0.517 0.520
Standard errors in brackets, clustered on the household level; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; food share is defined as the sum of the monthly amount spent on food at home and outside divided by the monthly gross income; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and household size.
Table 4.5: Engel curve estimation on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines and in-teractions)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES food share food share food share food share
log gross income -0.093*** -0.104*** -0.102*** -0.105***
[0.006] [0.006] [0.006] [0.006]
cal months below 1500 age 00-16 0.016***
[0.004]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(lo) -0.002***
[0.000]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(hi) 0.001*
[0.000]
cal months below 1500 age 00-04 0.018**
[0.008]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(lo) -0.002**
[0.001]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(hi) 0.001**
[0.001]
cal months below 1500 age 05-10 0.018***
[0.006]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(lo) -0.002***
[0.001]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(hi) 0.001***
[0.000]
cal months below 1500 age 11-16 0.015*
[0.008]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(lo) -0.002*
[0.001]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(hi) 0.001
[0.001]
constant 0.380 0.631** 0.454 0.558**
[0.329] [0.286] [0.282] [0.255]
observations 878 878 878 878
R-squared 0.538 0.523 0.526 0.520
Standard errors in brackets, clustered on the household level; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; food share is defined as the sum of the monthly amount spent on food at home and outside divided by the monthly gross income; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and household size.
Table 4.6: OLS regression BMI on self-reported hunger, median-income spines, and interactions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES BMI BMI BMI BMI
log gross income -0.695*** -0.680*** -0.697*** -0.709***
[0.227] [0.215] [0.226] [0.232]
hunger age 00-16 24.305***
[9.414]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(lo) -3.129**
[1.229]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(hi) 1.856 [1.313]
hunger age 00-04 61.070
[37.112]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(lo) -7.789
[4.825]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(hi) 4.168
[3.305]
hunger age 05-10 18.967
[13.057]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(lo) -2.366
[1.707]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(hi) 1.047
[1.575]
hunger age 11-16 25.255***
[7.405]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(lo) -3.351***
[0.987]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(hi) 1.565
[1.171]
constant 32.016*** 40.538*** 38.370*** 32.092***
[11.949] [11.608] [11.815] [11.914]
observations 876 876 876 876
R-squared 0.074 0.080 0.069 0.067
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered.
Table 4.7: Probit regression overweight on self-reported hunger, median-income spines, and inter-actions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES overweight overweight overweight overweight
loginc -0.275*** -0.294*** -0.267*** -0.261***
[0.074] [0.071] [0.073] [0.072]
hunger age 00-16 8.796***
[3.182]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(lo) -1.154***
[0.415]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(hi) 0.709*
[0.389]
hunger age 00-04 2.286
[6.912]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(lo) -0.286
[0.903]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(hi) 1.199
[0.839]
hunger age 05-10 7.298*
[3.923]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(lo) -0.936*
[0.511]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(hi) 0.401
[0.417]
hunger age 11-16 15.094***
[4.405]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(lo) -2.000***
[0.578]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(hi) 0.607
[0.465]
constant 7.059* 8.770** 7.757** 7.922**
[3.853] [3.878] [3.889] [3.896]
observations 876 876 876 876
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered.
Table 4.8: Probit regression diabetes on self-reported hunger, median-income spines, and interac-tions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES diabetes diabetes diabetes diabetes
log gross income -0.142 -0.179* -0.163 -0.162*
[0.099] [0.096] [0.099] [0.095]
hunger age 00-16 3.575
[2.502]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(lo) -0.434 [0.330]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(hi) -0.521 [0.519]
hunger age 00-04 -0.387
[5.596]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(lo) 0.139
[0.739]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(hi) -1.086
[0.951]
hunger age 05-10 1.424
[2.970]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(lo) -0.132
[0.393]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(hi) -0.691
[0.623]
hunger age 11-16 7.107**
[3.413]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(lo) -0.911**
[0.452]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(hi) -0.445
[0.786]
constant -4.699 -2.076 -1.897 -5.690
[5.114] [5.091] [5.148] [5.300]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered.
Table 4.9: 2.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation: BMI on foodshare
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES BMI BMI BMI BMI
food share×100 0.349** 0.275** 0.229 0.256**
[0.150] [0.124] [0.158] [0.121]
log gross income 3.140* 2.327* 1.810 2.105
[1.695] [1.402] [1.776] [1.370]
hunger age 00-16 0.600
[0.496]
hunger age 00-04 1.366
[0.866]
hunger age 05-10 0.761
[0.555]
hunger age 11-16 0.204
[0.632]
constant 10.864 19.646 22.755 16.317
[17.824] [16.704] [18.093] [16.186]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education, whether being partnered;
household size is excluded from this 2.stage equation; food share was multiplied by factor 100.
Table 4.10: 2.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation: overweight on foodshare
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES overweight overweight overweight overweight
food share×100 0.084*** -0.015 0.059 0.080***
[0.025] [0.036] [0.040] [0.026]
log gross income 0.726** -0.439 0.412 0.673*
[0.332] [0.391] [0.492] [0.344]
hunger age 00-16 0.029
[0.124]
hunger age 00-04 0.455*
[0.252]
hunger age 05-10 0.073
[0.164]
hunger age 11-16 -0.057
[0.197]
constant -0.273 9.694** 2.536 0.820
[4.579] [4.692] [5.783] [4.869]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education, whether being partnered; household size is excluded from this 2.stage equation; food share was multiplied by factor 100.
Table 4.11: 2.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation: diabetes on foodshare
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES diabetes diabetes diabetes diabetes
food share×100 0.028 0.005 -0.021 0.049
[0.048] [0.042] [0.061] [0.036]
log gross income 0.127 -0.139 -0.430 0.367
[0.565] [0.478] [0.674] [0.435]
hunger age 00-16 0.195
[0.162]
hunger age 00-04 0.438
[0.293]
hunger age 05-10 0.344*
[0.180]
hunger age 11-16 0.241
[0.201]
constant -5.251 -2.426 0.287 -8.110
[6.266] [6.286] [7.285] [5.667]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; We control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education, whether being partnered;
household size is excluded from this 2.stage equation; food share was multiplied by factor 100.
Figure 4.1: Self-reported hunger by SHARE countries, 1920-1960
Figure 4.2: Amount of official caloric intake per day and fraction of self-reported hunger, January 1930-January 1970
Figure 4.3: Concentration exposure to hunger at age 0-16, the straight lines refer to birth cohorts 1939, 1945, and 1949
Figure 4.4: Fraction of self-reported hunger by socioeconomic status, 1930-1960
Figure 4.5: Engel curve relationship by self-reported hunger and caloric threshold of 1500 kcal, age 0-16
Appendix
Table A.1: Regression of risk aversion on self-reported hunger
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES risk aversion risk aversion risk aversion risk aversion
log gross income -0.112*** -0.112*** -0.112*** -0.114***
[0.033] [0.033] [0.033] [0.033]
hunger age 00-16 0.107*
[0.060]
hunger age 00-04 0.258***
[0.078]
hunger age 05-10 0.108
[0.068]
hunger age 11-16 -0.008
[0.089]
constant 6.558*** 7.177*** 6.908*** 6.451***
[1.801] [1.836] [1.825] [1.849]
observations 544 544 544 544
R-squared 0.111 0.115 0.110 0.107
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and household size.
Table A.2: Regression of trust on self-reported hunger
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES trust trust trust trust
log gross income 0.088 0.084 0.085 0.087
[0.130] [0.129] [0.130] [0.130]
hunger age 00-16 -0.041
[0.282]
hunger age 00-04 -0.836*
[0.497]
hunger age 05-10 -0.205
[0.330]
hunger age 11-16 -0.139
[0.413]
constant -5.623 -7.964 -6.642 -4.979
[7.565] [7.607] [7.656] [7.847]
observations 801 801 801 801
R-squared 0.045 0.049 0.046 0.045
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and household size.
Table A.3: OLS regression BMI on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines, and inter-actions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES BMI BMI BMI BMI
log gross income -0.632* -0.596** -0.939*** -0.693***
[0.358] [0.257] [0.273] [0.246]
cal months below 1500 age 00-16 0.111
[0.136]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(lo) -0.017 [0.018]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(hi) 0.001 [0.018]
cal months below 1500 age 00-04 0.14
[0.311]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(lo) -0.017
[0.040]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(hi) -0.029
[0.025]
cal months below 1500 age 05-10 -0.197
[0.170]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(lo) 0.022
[0.022]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(hi) 0.019
[0.024]
cal months below 1500 age 11-16 0.402**
[0.196]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(lo) -0.051**
[0.026]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(hi) 0.031
[0.043]
constant 18.52 31.306** 24.766* 31.763***
[18.922] [12.982] [14.286] [11.778]
observations 876 876 876 876
R-squared 0.062 0.062 0.064 0.064
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered.
Table A.4: Probit regression overweight on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines, and interactions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES overweight overweight overweight overweight
log gross income -0.216** -0.248*** -0.332*** -0.225***
[0.099] [0.079] [0.083] [0.074]
cal months below 1500 age 00-16 0.006
[0.044]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(lo) 0 [0.006]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(hi) -0.006 [0.005]
cal months below 1500 age 00-04 -0.139*
[0.082]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(lo) 0.020*
[0.011]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(hi) -0.026**
[0.011]
cal months below 1500 age 05-10 -0.05
[0.070]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(lo) 0.005
[0.009]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(hi) 0.005
[0.007]
cal months below 1500 age 11-16 0.223**
[0.099]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(lo) -0.028**
[0.013]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(hi) -0.008
[0.014]
constant 6.915 8.530** 3.306 5.519
[5.973] [4.275] [4.674] [3.820]
observations 876 876 876 876
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered.
Table A.5: Probit regression diabetes on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines, and interactions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES diabetes diabetes diabetes diabetes
log gross income -0.074 -0.212** -0.167 -0.183*
[0.148] [0.106] [0.118] [0.098]
cal months below 1500 age 00-16 0.042
[0.055]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(lo) -0.006 [0.007]
months below 1500 age 00-16×loginc(hi) -0.007 [0.008]
cal months below 1500 age 00-04 0.058
[0.098]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(lo) -0.01
[0.013]
months below 1500 age 00-04×loginc(hi) 0.012
[0.013]
cal months below 1500 age 05-10 -0.013
[0.081]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(lo) 0.002
[0.011]
months below 1500 age 05-10×loginc(hi) -0.012
[0.011]
cal months below 1500 age 11-16 0.079
[0.083]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(lo) -0.01
[0.011]
months below 1500 age 11-16×loginc(hi) 0.005
[0.016]
constant -13.308 -6.092 -3.079 -3.775
[9.131] [5.506] [6.333] [5.160]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered.
Table A.6: 1.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation with BMI as 2.stage outcome: food-share on self-reported hunger, median-income splines, and interactions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES fs×100 fs×100 fs×100 fs×100
log gross income -11.013*** -10.920*** -11.040*** -11.133***
[0.420] [0.409] [0.421] [0.410]
hunger age 00-16 52.374***
[12.975]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(lo) -6.872***
[1.708]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(hi) 2.875*
[1.723]
hunger age 00-04 135.009***
[31.449]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(lo) -17.162***
[4.136]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(hi) 1.862
[3.866]
hunger age 05-10 44.574***
[16.190]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(lo) -5.686***
[2.136]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(hi) 1.362
[2.201]
hunger age 11-16 73.121***
[17.456]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(lo) -9.846***
[2.313]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(hi) 6.176**
[2.746]
constant 59.644*** 73.144*** 69.379*** 64.057***
[22.738] [22.667] [23.015] [22.919]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered; food share was multiplied with 100.
Table A.7: 1.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation with overweight as 2.stage outcome:
foodshare on self-reported hunger, median-income splines, and interactions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES fs×100 fs×100 fs×100 fs×100
log gross income -11.027*** -10.899*** -11.043*** -11.101***
[0.420] [0.410] [0.421] [0.411]
hunger age 00-16 52.779***
[13.118]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(lo) -6.933***
[1.726]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(hi) 3.200*
[1.675]
hunger age 00-04 112.138***
[35.140]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(lo) -14.041***
[4.637]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(hi) -2.204
[4.305]
hunger age 05-10 45.037***
[16.567]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(lo) -5.750***
[2.185]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(hi) 1.484
[2.212]
hunger age 11-16 76.492***
[17.297]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(lo) -10.280***
[2.291]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(hi) 5.718**
[2.667]
constant 60.189*** 72.213*** 69.445*** 64.098***
[22.751] [22.647] [23.018] [22.928]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered; food share was multiplied with 100.
Table A.8: 1.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation with diabetes as 2.stage outcome:
foodshare on self-reported hunger, median-income splines, and interactions
(1) (2) (3) (4)
VARIABLES fs×100 fs×100 fs×100 fs×100
log gross income -10.993*** -10.910*** -11.079*** -11.131***
[0.428] [0.411] [0.427] [0.412]
hunger age 00-16 47.372***
[14.384]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(lo) -6.188***
[1.894]
hunger age 00-16×loginc(hi) 1.743 [2.058]
hunger age 00-04 114.124***
[34.702]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(lo) -14.323***
[4.574]
hunger age 00-04×loginc(hi) -1.557
[4.208]
hunger age 05-10 36.506**
[18.383]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(lo) -4.625*
[2.418]
hunger age 05-10×loginc(hi) 1.062
[2.382]
hunger age 11-16 72.819***
[18.074]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(lo) -9.804***
[2.393]
hunger age 11-16×loginc(hi) 6.026**
[2.929]
constant 58.399** 72.191*** 69.414*** 63.980***
[22.730] [22.647] [23.020] [22.922]
observations 878 878 878 878
Robust standard errors in brackets; *** p<0.01 ** p<0.05 * p<0.1; we control for age, age squared, gender, born in a rural/urban region, occupation zone at birth, years of education and whether being partnered; food share was multiplied with 100.
2.1 Summary statistics . . . 32 2.2 Correlated random effects probit models (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . 34 2.3 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . . 35 2.4 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment stratified by the duration of partner’s final illness (dependent variable: bi-nary CESD score) . . . 36 2.5 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment stratified by gender (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . . 37 2.6 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment stratified by age groups (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . . 38 A.1 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies three periods before/after
treatment (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . . 44 A.2 F-tests on the degree of anticipation and adaptation within and between groups using
coefficients from table 2.3 . . . 45 A.3 Comparison of the model fit without and with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment . . . 46 A.4 Probit model estimations for impact of timing of interview on mental health status,
by expected and unexpected timing of death (dependent variable: binary CESD score) 47 A.5 Mean and median duration of final illness for 11 categories of official causes of death . 48 A.6 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment for single causes of death (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . . 49 A.7 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment for single and groups of causes of death (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . . 50 A.8 Correlated random effects probit models with pulse dummies one period before/after
treatment for other causes of death (dependent variable: binary CESD score) . . . 51 3.1 Variable definition . . . 69 3.2 GDP per head relative to US GDP per head . . . 70 3.3 Percentage of SHARELIFE respondents with father absent at age 10; by time period . 71 3.4 Number of observations available in SHARELIFE; by country . . . 72
123
3.5 Adult health outcomes associated with World War II . . . 73
3.6 Adult SES outcomes associated with World War II . . . 74
3.7 Selective fertility by socioeconomic status during childhood . . . 75
3.8 Differential mortality by socioeconomic status during childhood, before/after World War II . . . 75
3.9 Channels of war associated with World War II . . . 76
3.10 War interaction with childhood SES models . . . 77
A.1 External data variable definitions . . . 83
A.2 Descriptive statistics . . . 84
4.1 German states by occupation zones . . . 102
4.2 OLS regressions on months below 1500 kcal/day, ages 0-16, 0-4, 5-10, 11-16 . . . 102
4.3 Construction of food share sample . . . 103
4.4 Engel curve estimation on self-reported hunger, median-income splines and interactions104 4.5 Engel curve estimation on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines and interactions) . . . 105
4.6 OLS regression BMI on self-reported hunger, median-income spines, and interactions . 106 4.7 Probit regression overweight on self-reported hunger, median-income spines, and in-teractions . . . 107
4.8 Probit regression diabetes on self-reported hunger, median-income spines, and inter-actions . . . 108
4.9 2.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation: BMI on foodshare . . . 109
4.10 2.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation: overweight on foodshare . . . 110
4.11 2.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation: diabetes on foodshare . . . 111
A.1 Regression of risk aversion on self-reported hunger . . . 115
A.2 Regression of trust on self-reported hunger . . . 116
A.3 OLS regression BMI on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines, and interactions . . . 117
A.4 Probit regression overweight on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines, and interactions . . . 118
A.5 Probit regression diabetes on months below 1500 kcal/day, median-income splines, and interactions . . . 119
A.6 1.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation with BMI as 2.stage outcome: foodshare on self-reported hunger, median-income splines, and interactions . . . 120
A.7 1.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation with overweight as 2.stage out-come: foodshare on self-reported hunger, median-income splines, and interactions . . . 121
A.8 1.stage results of simultaneous equation estimation with diabetes as 2.stage outcome: foodshare on self-reported hunger, median-income splines, and interactions . . . 122
2.1 Distribution of CESD scores index with nine categories . . . 39 2.2 Change in CESD scores by expected/unexpected time of death, five waves surrounding
death . . . 39 2.3 Change in CESD scores by expected/unexpected time of death, 365 days surrounding
the partner’s death; the CESD score ranges from 0 to 1 . . . 40 2.4 Change in CESD scores by expected/unexpected time of death, 12 months surrounding
the partner’s death; the CESD score ranges from 0 to 1 . . . 40 2.5 Change in predicted CESD scores by expected/unexpected time of death, 12 months
surrounding death (predictions are based on specification (2)) . . . 41 2.6 Change in CESD scores by expected/unexpected time of death for short (<1 month)
and long (>1 month) durations of the partner’s final illness, five waves surrounding death . . . 42 2.7 Change in CESD scores by expected/unexpected time of death for five groups of causes
of the partner’s death, five waves surrounding death . . . 43 3.1 World War II casualties as percentage of the population and total . . . 78 3.2 Percentage of SHARE respondents suffering from hunger: war versus nonwar countries 79 3.3 Total inflow and outflow of population, 1939-1947 . . . 80 3.4 Dispossession of population in World War II . . . 81 3.5 Later life outcome differences between war and nonwar countries by period of birth . . 82 4.1 Self-reported hunger by SHARE countries, 1920-1960 . . . 112 4.2 Amount of official caloric intake per day and fraction of self-reported hunger, January
1930-January 1970 . . . 112 4.3 Concentration exposure to hunger at age 0-16, the straight lines refer to birth cohorts
1939, 1945, and 1949 . . . 113 4.4 Fraction of self-reported hunger by socioeconomic status, 1930-1960 . . . 113 4.5 Engel curve relationship by self-reported hunger and caloric threshold of 1500 kcal,
age 0-16 . . . 114
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