Conceptual framework

The theoretical framework used in the study was adapted from the general model of the SITES studies series (Kozma R., 2003; Law, Pelgrum & Plomp, 2008) and integrates different factors related to ICT integration in pedagogical practices, clustered in 3 levels (as can be seen in Figure 1): (a) Macro: Factors associated with national mechanisms of institutional evaluation (accreditation) and implementation of standards, at a system education level, (b) Meso:

Includes different institutional-related factors, such as: infra-structure; availability and access to ICT resources; technical and pedagogical support; curricular integration; institutional policies and interventions as the most relevant; and c) Micro: Factors directly related to teaching and learning practices, such as: frequency of ICT-use; types of practices; teachers and students’ characteristics;

teachers’ vision and self-perception of competencies, to name a few.

Nevertheless, considering that Initial Teacher Training institutions very often function with a high degree of autonomy, the macro level factors are often considered less influential, and therefore, the focus should be directed to the meso and the micro levels (Drent &

Meelissen; 2008; Enochsson & Rizza, 2009)

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Figure 1. Scheme of the conceptual framework used in the study (adapted from Law et al, 2008, p. 19)

Factors involved are numerous, varied and complex (Mumtaz, 2000; UNESCO, 2003; Drent & Meelissen, 2008, Pedró, 2009), and they interact dynamically (Janssen Reinen, 1996). The general idea is that these factors shape the future teachers’ profile in regard to their teaching skills and ICT competencies; therefore, they affect the quality of this education level. Since some of them are considered “manipulative”, (ten Brummelhius, 1995; Drent &

Meelissen, 2008), they could be handled by institutions through appropriate interventions that are oriented to ensure and enhance quality in the Teacher Education system.

Meso

level Macro

level

Micro level

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In this context, the study was guided by the following research questions:

1. What are the national frameworks and requirements regarding the use of ICT in initial teacher training in teacher training institutions?

2. What are the institutional contexts and requirements regarding the use of ICT in initial teacher training in teacher training institutions?

3. To what extent and in what ways is technology used in teacher education institutions?

4. In what ways are student teachers prepared to integrate technology in teaching in initial teacher training institutions?

5. How is policy evaluated? Does practice correspond to policy?

3. Method

To address the research questions, the study developed a method-ological strategy based on a quantitative approach for data collection and analysis (whose main results were also backed up by several case studies). In this sense, a survey was conducted (through self-administered printed questionnaires) in 46 teacher training institutions (about 75% of the national total) which participated voluntarily, targeting different actors whose corresponding samples were: (a) 46 deans (or equivalent authorities); (b) 495 teachers (representing different programs: primary education, and secondary teaching in mathematics, national language, social sciences and natural sciences); (c) 164 mentors (supervising students during their teaching practices); (d) 1,675 students (selected from different years); (e) 233 recent graduates and (f) 50 technical and/or pedagogical experts (in charge of pedagogical ICT-issues and/or technical aspects, such as maintenance). Fieldwork was conducted from June to September 2009.

The original questionnaires (from the OECD study) covered different issues, namely: policies, curricular integration, ICT infrastructure and support, frequency of ICT-use, teaching and learning activities, enablers and barriers to ICT integration to name a few, with the

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purpose of obtaining an overview of the pedagogical use of ICT in Initial Teacher Training. These instruments were firstly translated into Spanish; then, adapted to the characteristics of the local context; and finally, some complementary questions were added.

Results have a 95% significance level, allowing the performance of inferential processes over the total population. The main quantitative statistical procedures used in this paper correspond to descriptive analysis (i.e. frequencies, and mean differences using t-test and one-way ANOVA), as well as multiple linear regression techniques;

these procedures were performed by using the software SPSS-Statistics v.17.0©.

4. Results

For clarifying their presentation, the results emerging from the study will be shown organized as belonging to the meso and the micro levels, and then they will be structured in the following dimensions: (1) Institutional policies; (2) Infrastructure and ICT resources; (3) ICT support; (4) Teachers’ beliefs and competencies on ICT use and (5) Teaching and learning practices.

4.1. Meso level factors:

4.1.1. Institutional policies

a) Curricular integration and policies for supporting ICT-based innovations

According to the deans, ICT is mostly integrated into the curriculum only in some specific areas (83%) and not in a cross-curricular way. In addition, 56% of the deans which were surveyed reported that explicit objectives about students’

pedagogical ICT-related competencies are present in less than half of teacher education syllabi. Regarding the existence of an institutional policy to sustain innovations in teaching based on ICT, nearly 63% of the deans responded affirmatively. Meanwhile, almost 70% of the authorities which were surveyed reported the 110

existence in their institution of an area or department dedicated to support pedagogical innovations with ICT by teachers.

b) Institutional offer for teachers' professional development

Most of the institutions provide ICT-related courses for teacher trainers as optional activities. This aspect emerges as a relatively weak one, because whilst teachers’ professional development on ICT use is not an institutional requirement, it remains strongly attached to teachers’ commitment and personal initiative. In fact, only 54% of teachers reported their participation in a workshop or course involving ICT (general or pedagogical use) during the last five years. However, it’s interesting to note that deans confer a relatively high priority to a teachers’ acquisition of ICT-related competences in aspects such as: teaching innovation by using ICT, integration of ICT by specific actions, and the identification of good practices to integrate ICT.

c) Assessment and use of standards

Most of the actors agree (with percentages ranging from approx.

65% to 77%) that they do not perceive the existence of a formal assessment of activities in regard to students’ ICT competencies.

Furthermore, only a minor percentage of the respondents reported the application of standards as part of the evaluation processes (from 13% of the deans, up to 30% of students). In this case, differences are statistically significant between private and public institutions, since private institutions reported a more frequent application of standards. It is quite noteworthy that not all actors who perceived the application of standards in their institutions were able to classify or identify the standard’s type:

except for the most frequently mentioned (the ICT standards for the Initial Teacher Training), the others were just for internal use, or constituted general rules or guidelines taken as references during the evaluation processes. This finding shows that the use of standards is not yet a usual practice in Teacher Education institutions in Chile.

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4.1.2. Infrastructure and ICT resources

Regarding the main infrastructure indicators, the ratio of students per computer has an overall mean of 17; all the institutions have a website and provide access to the Internet: 96% of them provide broadband access and 91% have a Wi-fi network. In addition, 59%

of the institutions reported having a LMS/VLS system supporting on average 53% of their courses. On the other hand, almost 75% of teachers have their own personal computer in their institutions.

In relation to the access and availability of ICT resources for teaching and learning purposes, the most available and accessible are computers and projection systems (more that 80% of teachers reported that they are available, at least in some of the classrooms).

Among the resources with the lowest availability, it could be mentioned: interactive whiteboards, video-conferencing systems, digital cameras and mobile devices. There were no significant differences on this topic, depending on the institutional funding system (public or private).

4.1.3. Institutional ICT support

In regard to the availability of technical and pedagogical support for teaching and learning with ICT, approximately 95% and 80% of teachers reported, respectively, the existence of technical and pedagogical support.

In respect to the quality of these types of support, results show that the quality of technical support is slightly better rated than the pedagogical support; however, both overall rates were ranked between “medium” and “good” quality.

4.2. Micro level factors:

4.2.1. Teachers’ competencies and beliefs about ICT integration

Teacher trainers reported high levels of comfort on ICT use, either at home or in academic activities: 95% and 93% of them said that they felt “fairly or very comfortable” about using ICT at home and in class, respectively. Even more importantly, teachers’ self-perceived 112

levels of ICT competencies exceed the students’ levels This fact could contribute to dismissal of the argument about a generation gap between teachers and students.

With respect to teachers’ visions of the importance of students learning ICT, results show a prevalence of ICT uses related to the organization of teachers’ work and a lower incidence of the uses associated with ICT integration in teaching. Thus, it may be observed that teachers’ would assign greater importance to the functional dimension of ICT as a management tool, compared to its pedagogical dimension.

4.2.2. Teaching and learning activities

Results reveal that teacher trainers seem to use ICT in a basic and undiversified way, involving a relatively limited set of digital resources (mainly, computers and projection systems: almost 80%

of teachers reported that they use them “half of the classes” or more): this suggests that teachers are not taking advantage of the potential of ICT. Moreover, results are consistent with former studies (see, for example, Kozma, 2003; Law et al., 2008; OECD, 2009a) regarding the preponderance of ‘traditional’ teaching and learning activities (i.e. students working as a group at same pace) when compared to the ‘emerging’ or ‘innovative’ ones (such as students working autonomously at their own pace or determining their own learning goals, to name a few).

On the other hand, the frequency of activities related to the explicit instruction about how to teach with ICT, is significantly lower than the frequency of activities that only include the use of ICT by teachers. Consequently, it seems that one of the main problems for students is not only learning how to use ICT, but also learning how to integrate it pedagogically into their future work.

Finally, the present research determined the influence of different factors on the frequency of teaching and learning activities with ICT. In this sense, two main regression models were initially explored; the corresponding predictors and determination coeffi-cients will be shown as follows:

a) The frequency of teaching activities with ICT was predicted by the “availability of ICT resources in the classrooms” and

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“teachers’ level of self-perceived competences for using ICT”

(R² = 41.7%)

b) The frequency of students’ learning activities with ICT was explained by the “students’ confidence level for using ICT with pedagogical purposes”, and the “pedagogical support”(R²=1.5%) The presented findings shed light on some concrete ways to promote more frequent use of ICT in Teacher Education, as well as to enhance the overall teaching quality through the promotion of high-level teaching activities.