6.5 Conclusions & Comparison
6.5.3 Comparison to State-Of-The-Art Facilities
The exceptionally low measurement uncertainty ofUIsc≈0.70% for large solar cells imposes a detailed comparison of the new Laser-DSR setup to other DSR-facilities. However, as the concepts (and sometimes even the objectives) of these setups typically vary significantly, a true quanti-tative comparison proves to be inappropriate in most cases. Therefore, the following discussion starts with a qualitative comparison of the new setup to state-of-the-art DSR-measurement facilities used for calibration of solar cells at Fraunhofer ISE CalLab. Afterwards, the new setup will be compared to a much more similar concept developed at PTB Braun-schweig [17] based on the, to the best of the author’s knowledge, available information.
The currently applied DSR-measurement systems at Fraunhofer ISE CalLab PV Cells are a grating [101] and a filter monochromator [107]
setup. Whereas the grating monochromator features free choice of wave-lengths and bandwidths, only a limited number of fixed center wavewave-lengths at given bandwidths is available in the filter monochromator setup. On the other hand, the grating monochromator setup provides several orders of magnitude less optical power so that it is predominantly used for rela-tive SR-measurements, with an irradiation field significantly smaller than the active area of the device under test and for concentrator cells. In contrast, the filter monochromator setup provides enough irradiance for an uniform illumination of large area solar cells, potentially allowing for absolute SR-measurements.
Owing to its significantly higher spectral power (compare Fig. 6.9b)
the new Laser-DSR setup allows for a combination of both: full flexi-bility in choice of wavelengths and uniform illumination of entire solar cells (up to 18x18 cm2 with the current optical setup). Moreover, the or-ders of magnitude higher spectral power allows for even lower bandwidths as compared to typical grating monochromator measurements. Another consequence of the increased spectral power is the significant improve-ment of signal-to-noise ratio allowing for reduced standard deviations and measurement duration. Another advantage related to the speed of the measurement system is given by the dual reference measurement mode that was introduced in Section 6.2.2. As two wavelengths are measured simultaneously, the measurement duration is halved. In combination with the speed enhancement owing to the increased signal level, a reduction of measurement duration by a factor of 3 or 4 is expected for a comparable number wavelength steps.
Apart from these rather obvious improvements in speed, flexibility and resolution, the measurement uncertainty is significantly reduced as com-pared to the grating and filter monochromator setup currently being used in the Fraunhofer ISE CalLab PV Cells.25
Regarding the spatial radiation properties the most striking improve-ment is the (virtual) elimination of any height dependence. It was shown that within±20 mm no variation in the averaged irradiance is observed, thereby canceling the related measurement uncertainty. Furthermore, the refined optical concept of the Laser-DSR setup yields an improvement in uniformity of the monochromatic irradiance field from approximately 10% in the filter monochromator setup to less than 3% non-uniformity.
Consequently, the uncertainties related to spatial non-uniformity are sig-nificantly reduced. A similar effect results from chopping the monochro-matic radiation prior to spatially homogenizing it in the fiber device and the rod (see Section 6.2.4). This concept results in a spatially constant phase across the entire measurement plane, making any consideration of
25The following discussion of uncertainties related to spatial radiation properties is limited to the filter monochromator setup as the concept of measuring relative SRs, as with the grating monochromator, imposes a significantly deviating discussion of such uncertainties. For the spectral uncertainty discussion both grating and filter monochromator are considered.
spatial phase variations and related measurement uncertainties redundant [119].
Turning the discussion towards spectral uncertainties, it was demon-strated that the new setup allows for neglecting any uncertainty contri-bution related to undesired spectral components in the monochromatic radiation. Furthermore, the radiation bandwidth is significantly reduced from approximately 10 to 15 nm in the filter monochromator setup to less than 5 nm (optionally, less than 5 nm are available as well). Thus, the Laser-DSR setup achieves bandwidths-related uncertainties similar to those obtained by the grating monochromator setup. However, the un-certainty in center wavelength in the spectral range from 270 to 520 nm is assumed to be slightly higher with the new Laser-DSR setup. As no monochromator is applied in that spectral range, the repeatability of the laser itself is limiting, resulting in an estimated uncertainty of±1 nm. For wavelengths longer than 520 nm the uncertainty in center wavelengths is expected to be as low as in the grating monochromator setup.
In contrast to the very different filter and grating monochromator setup, a DSR-measurement facility very similar to the one presented in this chapter has been developed at the PTB Braunschweig [15, 17] at about the same time as this development at the Fraunhofer ISE took place. Utilizing a tunable ultrashort pulse laser system, significantly en-hancing the pulse repetition rate by a fiber device and spectrally shaping the radiation with a grating monochromator, DSR-measuremements are conducted. Major conceptual differences of the setups are as follows: the PTB-setup does not allow for a simultaneous measurement at two wave-lengths at a time, a single grating monochromator is used in the PTB-setup and the uniform illumination is achieved by two lenses imaging the monochromator output. Apart from slight deviations caused by appli-cation of a different combination of nonlinear optical processes to cover the entire spectral range, both setups provide approximately equal optical power in the measurement plane [17] (even in the dual reference mode of the ISE-setup).
Regarding measurement uncertainties, the PTB-setup achieves an ex-panded uncertainty ofUIsc= 0.4% for 2x2 cm2 cells, which represents the lowest reported uncertainty for DSR-measurements. Assuming the same
reference uncertainty26 the new Laser-DSR setup achieves UIsc ≈0.42%
for a 2x2 cm2GaAs cell assuming a silicon based reference and taking into account minor uncertainty contributions being neglected in this chapter so far [17].27 The same consideration assuming a large area 15.6x15.6 cm2 solar cell yields an expanded uncertainty of 0.48%. Thus, it is concluded that the new Laser-DSR facility at Fraunhofer ISE CalLab PV Cells is capable of achieving measurement uncertainties in the range of nowadays most accurate DSR-facilities.
26As the reference cell used for the measurements presented in Section 6.4.4 has a significantly higher uncertainty as the reference used by the PTB and, in addition, is the main uncertainty contribution to the overall uncertainty, comparing the uncertainties without adapting the reference would be misleading.
27As so are: spectral and spatial uncertainties of the bias irradiation (approximately 0.03% standard uncertainty each), instability in cell temperatures and imperfect mon-itoring principle (combined uncertainty of approximately 0.03%) and interpolation er-rors in wavelength and current (approximately 0.02% standard uncertainty each). As the reference cell has been dominating the uncertainty analysis in Section 6.4 so far, these contributions were neglected beforehand.
Furthermore, instead of being calibrated in units of A/W·m2, as the usually applied reference cells, the different reference object is calibrated in units of A/W. Applying an aperture, the irradiance (in W/cm2) and, from this, the effective area of the refer-ence objectARC are determined (applied in the correction term fSizein Eq. (6.12)).
Consequently, the uncertainty of the aperture itself (approximately 0.02%) needs to be taken into account as well [17].
Supercontinuum Radiation for Solar Cell Characterization
In this chapter the application of spectrally shaped supercon-tinuum radiation for solar cell characterization is discussed.
After motivating the advantages of supercontinuum radiation, an experimental setup for generation and precise spectral shap-ing of a supercontinuum is presented. Subsequently, a detailed analysis reveals that spectrally shaped supercontinuum radi-ation outperforms state-of-the-art solar simulators regarding spectral mismatch and its uncertainty. Moreover, a differen-tial short circuit current measurement approach is presented that takes advantage of the precise spectral shaping capabilities while simultaneously overcoming the drawback of insufficient supercontinuum power. Finally, the potential of this new mea-surement method is emphasized by first meamea-surement results.
Parts of this chapter were presented in a previous publication of the author of this work [120].
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7.1 Introduction
In the preceding Chapter 6 a new facility for differential spectral respon-sivity (DSR) measurements was presented, that has been developed in the course of this work. Moreover, in Section 6.4.3 it was demonstrated that the new setup allows for very low uncertainties in measuring the absolute spectral responsivitys(λ). Consequently, and as outlined in Section 6.4.4, the short circuit current
ISC= Z
s(λ)Eλ(λ) dλ, (7.1)
of the device under test can also be retrieved highly accurately when set-ting spectral irradiance Eλ(λ) in Eq. (7.1) as a standard solar spectral irradiance distribution (e.g. as AM1.5g). However, the necessity of mea-surings(λ) with highest possible accuracy generally limits this method’s speed regardingISCmeasurement. A much faster approach is represented by solar simulators that replace the mathematical integration in Eq. (7.1) by a physical integration using broadband light sources that imitate the considered standard solar spectrum (see also Section 2.2.2).
In order to achieve a best possible spectral match of simulator spec-trumESimand standard solar spectrumESTC, spectrally filtered xenon or halogen lamps or, alternatively, a variety of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are applied. However, due to their limited spectral shaping capabilities, a spectral mismatch
MM =
R sTC(λ)ESim(λ) dλR
sRC(λ)ESTC(λ) dλ R sTC(λ)ESTC(λ) dλR
sRC(λ)ESim(λ) dλ (7.2) remains that corrects for the differences of how a test cell (TC) and a reference cell (RC) evaluate the respective spectra (see Section 2.2.2.1).
In addition to the applied correction, MM is subject of an uncertainty uMMthat reduces the overall measurement accuracy.
Owing to their much more precise spectral shaping capabilities, su-percontinuum lasers have recently attracted interest regarding their ap-plicability as radiation sources in solar simulators [121]. In fact, it was
demonstrated byDenniset al. [122] that individually manipulating spec-tral amplitudes of supercontinuum radiation allows for a virtually perfect imitation of standard solar spectra, thereby making any mismatch correc-tion redundant (MM = 1 for ESim =ESTC in Eq. (7.2)). Thus, making supercontinuum radiation sources applicable for solar cell characterization might allow for fast and accurateISC measurements.