Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Sherbrooke R & D Centre, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada Email: Chantal.Farmer@canada.ca
Introduction Colostrum is the elixir for life in newborn piglets. A minimum amount of 250 g of colostrum must be ingested by an average size neonatal piglet (1.4 kg) in order to acquire immune protection and sustain body growth (Quesnel et al., 2012). However, this does not occur in all litters. It was estimated that approximately one third of sows cannot produce enough colostrum to fully support their litters (Quesnel et al., 2012). It is therefore imperative to attempt to augment the amount of colostrum available to piglets. Unlike milk yield, the production of colostrum in sows is not determined by litter size and suckling intensity but is largely driven by sow-related factors. Colostrum yield and composition are highly variable among sows. Various nutritional and endocrine factors affect colostrum yield and composition in swine, yet mechanisms that regulate colostrogenesis are not fully known. Few studies have looked at factors affecting the onset or cessation of colostrogenesis, which would likely impact its duration. Such information would be most pertinent to assist in developing novel management strategies in peripartal sows to maximize colostrum availability to piglets.
Importance of colostrum for piglets Colostrum provides newborn piglets with the energy necessary for thermoregulation and body growth. It also provides passive immunity needed for protection of piglets against pathogens, and growth factors that stimulate growth and maturation of tissues and organs, especially the gastrointestinal tract. By transferring bioactive factors from the mother to the offspring, colostrum is crucial for the process of lactocrine signaling, which affects the offspring much beyond the neonatal period.
Bioactive components of colostrum include such things as proteins, growth factors, peptides, oligosaccharides, fatty acid-derived molecules, steroids, and microRNAs.
Factors of variation The amount and composition of colostrum produced can be influenced by sow characteristics, such as endocrine status, nutrition, parity, immune status and level of stress, and by litter characteristics, especially vitality at birth. Environmental factors could also alter colostrum yield and composition through effects on the sow. Colostrum synthesis is under hormonal control, the prepartum peak of prolactin being essential for the initiation of lactation. Furthermore, colostrum yield is positively related to the prolactin/progesterone ratio in late pregnant sows. Neither farrowing induction using prostaglandins nor delaying farrowing with a progestagen affects colostrum yield. Other hormones also undergo drastic changes around parturition, namely estrogens and glucocorticoids whose concentrations increase before farrowing (Foisnet et al., 2010), yet, their role in the control of colostrogenesis has not yet been described in swine. Nutrition of the late-pregnant sow can alter the composition, but not amount, of colostrum produced. Energy intake and source have the greatest impact on colostrum composition, with fish oils affecting the type of colostral fat via an increase in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Farmer and Quesnel, 2009).
Duration of colostrogenesis Hormonal manipulations can impact the onset and cessation of the process of colostrogenesis. As early as puberty, mammary cells can start to produce lacteal secretions when stimulated with prolactin. However, the impact of such a premature lactogenesis on future colostrum yield is not known. Increasing prolactin concentrations in late pregnancy also induces early lactogenesis and the effect on piglet growth seems to be related to the concentrations of prolactin achieved, growth rate being inhibited when prolactin concentrations are at pharmacological levels. Inducing farrowings with prostaglandins led to an earlier onset of colostrogenesis. Colostrogenesis generally lasts until approximately 24 h after farrowing, as indicated by changes in composition of colostrum to become transient milk, and this is linked with the closure of mammary tight junctions. The cessation of colostrogenesis can be delayed using oxytocin. Injecting a supraphysiological dose of oxytocin (75 IU) 16 h after birth of the last piglet alters the permeability of mammary tight junctions, as indicated by a greater Na/K ratio in milk, thereby delaying the occurrence of tightening of these tight junctions and leading to further passive transfer of immunoglobulins and bioactive components from the dam’s circulation to the milk (Farmer et al., 2017). This prolongation of the colostral phase could be advantageous for the survival of newborn piglets who are born immuno-deficient and with very poor energy reserves.
Conclusions Colostrum intake by piglets is a major determinant of their performance, but much remains to be learned on the control of this important process in order to develop novel management strategies that will maximize it. Recent findings show that by injecting a supra-physiological dose of oxytocin to sows 16 h after the end of farrowing, the colostral quality of lacteal secretions is maintained for a longer period of time, thereby prolonging passive transfer of immunoglobulins, growth factors and hormones to the newborn piglets.
References
Farmer, C., M. Lessard, C. H. Knight, and H. Quesnel. 2017. Oxytocin injections in the postpartal period affect mammary tight junctions in sows. J. Anim. Sci.
95:3532-3539.
Farmer, C, and H. Quesnel. 2009. Nutritional, hormonal and environmental effects on colostrum in sows. J. Anim. Sci. 87 (Suppl. 1): 56-65.
Foisnet A, Farmer C, David C and Quesnel H 2010. Relationship between colostrum production by primiparous sows and sow physiology around parturition. Journal of Animal Science 88, 1672-1683.
Quesnel, H., C. Farmer, and N. Devillers. 2012. Colostrum intake: influence on piglet performance and factors of variation. Livest. Sci. 145:105-114.
Colostrum: Back to the Basics with Immunoglobulins
A. J. GeigerZinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA Email: AGeiger@Zinpro.com
Review Presentation: Since maternal immunoglobulins (Ig) are unable to cross the placental barrier during the gestation period, young calves rely almost entirely on passive transfer of immunity for the first few weeks of life. This passive immunity is achieved via feeding of high-quality colostrum to neonatal calves immediately after birth. Indeed, it is well known that achievement of passive transfer (PT) of immunity by the calf is not only critical in the first few weeks of life until active immunity has been established, but also has long lasting impacts on cattle.
Recent research efforts have been heavily focused on assessing the impacts of various ‘biological’ factors in maternal colostrum (i.e., insulin-like growth factor-I and –II, lactoferrin, insulin, etc.) on developmental processes of the new-born calf (gut development, etc.).
Although a majority of producers and industry representatives understand the importance of providing enough Ig to neonatal calves, it could be argued that the importance of these molecules and how they impact calf health and performance have taken a back seat to other aspects of colostrum in recent years. It is the author’s belief that revisiting the importance of various Igs (G1, G2 M, A) is a worthwhile topic. Therefore, the purpose of this review is revisit the importance of feeding colostrum to calves immediately after birth with the goal of achieving PT via the consumption of high quantities of Ig. A focus will be given to differentiating the various Igs present in colostrum and also discussing differences between different Ig isotypes (G1 and G2 for example).
Quality and antibody profile of colostrum are impacted by a variety of on farm practices and conditions. The impact of these conditions and practices will be discussed in terms of their impact on colostrum quality and the quantity of colostrum that must be fed.
Additional discussion will involve timeliness of colostrum collection and feeding along with bacterial contamination of colostrum and how it impacts the ability of a calf to achieve PT. Finally, Proper benchmarking protocols for both colostrum quality and rates of PT on farm will be discussed.
In times when the above criteria cannot be met or colostrum quality is unacceptable, alternatives exist. The primary alternatives are to feed stored colostrum on farm or a colostrum replacer. The feeding of stored colostrum on farm presents a significant challenge to producers as the quality of that colostrum is impacted by pooling, storage method, bacterial contamination, and time of pasteurization in relation to storage. Feeding a colostrum replacer also presents a significant financial commitment by dairy farms, and differences in colostrum replacer types will be discussed (i.e., serum-based vs. dried maternal vs. whey-based, etc.) to help producers make informed decisions.
Finally, although the importance of feeding high-quality colostrum to calves on day one of life cannot be denied, recent work suggests that feeding colostral Igs post-gut closure (after day one of lie) may have significant impacts on calf health and performance. The local impact of these Igs on the calf after 24 hours of life is worth of discussion as pressure continues to mount for the dairy industry to reduce antibiotic use on farm.
The goal of this review is not to discount the impact of ‘biological’ factors present in maternal colostrum on the calf, but to merely draw attention back to the pinnacle reason for colostrum feeding: Immunoglobulins. Through discussion of the above points, it is the author’s hope that new light can be shed on how colostrum is fed and managed on farm, resulting in healthier calves worldwide.
Session 09: Neonate health: impact of feeding management and colostrum
Beyond immunoglobulins: The immunoregulatory role of colostrum
H.-J. SchuberthImmunology Unit, University of Veterinary Medicine, Foundation, Hannover, Germany Email: Hans-Joachim.Schuberth@tiho-hannover.de
Introduction New born piglets and calves are equipped with a near complete immune system. The ability to respond to foreign antigens with a coordinated adaptive immune response is already present in late pregnancy. However, magnitude and speed of various immune mechanisms and cellular functions still need to develop in the neonate. Maternal colostrum is one the most decisive factor in this development. Of note, colostrum and its role has largely been narrowed to its protecting functions mediated by antigen- or pathogen-specific maternal antibodies. However, it becomes more and more apparent that colostrum and its ingredients have more immunoregulatory or –modulatory functions beyond the immunoglobulins and that the role of colostrum is not only to protect the newborn but to educate the immune system and to ensure balanced inflammatory responses in the gut and in the periphery.
The list of immunomodulatory colostral ingredients is remarking. Cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, cellular vesicles, micro RNA, viable cells and oligosaccharides are flooding the very immature gut of piglets and calves after uptake. They reach the yet underdeveloped gut epithelial cells and the circulation thereby affecting the maturation of the gut immune system as well as the development of secondary lymphoid organs in the periphery and hematopoiesis in the bone marrow.
Numerous publications addressing single aspects of these immunomodulatory components demonstrate their action and their potential role for the newborn calf and piglet. For instance, the uptake of viable maternal immune cells resulted in a different circulation behavior of immune cells in newborns and affected their response towards systemic vaccination (Langel et al. 2016). Interestingly, as proven for humans and mice, the transfer of maternal immune cells is not a transient phenomenon and can result in a life-long microchimerism in the offspring (Molès et al. 2018). Whether colostrum-induced microchimerism has a significant role in calf or piglet immune development, intestinal maturation and protection against infectious diseases remains to be investigated.
Apart from viable cells, cytokines and growth factors, one group of colostral ingredients, the colostral oligosaccharides (cOS), seem to be of special importance. cOS are variants of the lactose biosynthesis with, depending on the species, roughly 100+ variants. They promote and guide epithelial cell and villus growth, they are capable to inhibit the binding of putative pathogens to the epithelial surface, they favour balanced inflammatory responses and promote tissue repair mechanisms via their action on epithelial cells as well as on gut immigrating leukocyte subpopulations. This already remarkable array of cOS functions is complemented by their ability to favour as prebiotics the development of a diverse gut microbiome originating in part from colostrum-derived microbiota (Bode, 2012). Microbiota in turn produce immunomodulatory metabolites, and interact with developing epithelial and immune cells. Fro m this point onward, it seems s somehow difficult to dissect the relative role of colostral ingredients and the colostrum-favored expansion of certain families among the microbiota, since there is a massively growing body of data demonstrating the immune regulating, educating and guiding role of microbiota-generated metabolites for the immune system or various immune mechanisms (Le Doare et al. 2018).
Conclusions If it is accepted, that colostrum in calves and piglets is not just protection for a given time period, and that in absence of placental maternal transfer of maternal educating factors, this period of colostrum uptake is more than transferring antibodies, then it would be necessary to re-evaluate colostrum management strategies. This is especially important regarding the amount of transferred colostrum and its treatment (pasteurization, freezing/thawing). Especially the latter might keep antibodies and their concentrations largely unaltered but may alter the concentrations and bioactivities of other compounds (Fischer et al. 2017). The definition of ‘good quality’ colostrum needs refinement in light of the many roles colostrum has beyond passive protection by antibodies.
References
Bode L. Human milk oligosaccharides: every baby needs a sugar mama. Glycobiology. 2012, 22(9):1147-62.
Gonzalez DD, Dus Santos MJ. Bovine colostral cells-the often forgotten component of colostrum. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2017, 250(9):998-1005.
Fischer AJ, Malmuthuge N, Guan LL, Steele MA. The effect of heat treatment of bovine colostrum on the concentration of oligosaccharides in colostrum and in the intestine of neonatal male Holstein calves. J Dairy Sci. 2018, 101(1):401-7.
Langel SN, Wark WA, Garst SN, James RE, McGilliard ML, Petersson-Wolfe CS, et al. Effect of feeding whole compared with cell-free colostrum on calf immune status: Vaccination response. J Dairy Sci. 2016, 99(5):3979-94.
Le Doare K, Holder B, Bassett A, Pannaraj PS. Mother’s Milk: A Purposeful Contribution to the Development of the Infant Microbiota and Immunity. Front Immunol.
2018, 9(361).
Molès JP, Tuaillon E, Kankasa C, Bedin AS, Nagot N, Marchant A, McDermid JM, Van de Perre P. Breastmilk cell trafficking induces microchimerism-mediated immune system maturation in the infant. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2018, 29(2):133-143.