Organizations in public administration have to reach many, often contradicting objectives, besides, specifi cs of operation of each organization is unique; thereby operation of organizations in public sector is complicated and multidimensional.93 Operational complexity and necessity to provide uniform understanding of laws has formed the basis for specifi cs of work relationship in public administration, requiring special demands for the employed ones in public administration, as well as setting special employment terms. Employees in public administration traditionally were applied career-based system, granting employment for the civil servants, but not particular position.
Career-based system ensures development of reliable organization, professionalism, promotes development of uniform culture and understanding of the values of organization, as well as provides more precise application of legal regulations. On the other hand, career-based systems encourage versatility instead of specialization; they are static and non-fl exible, directed towards minimising of risks instead of excellence at performance of work.94 The spread of career-based systems within public administration was encouraged also by the fact that in many countries it is country itself or government that features as employer instead of a specifi c institution (agency), where the employee (civil servant) works. Such principle of governance provides for a high stability of employment, but not always high professionalism within specifi cs of particular activity.
Upon entrepreneurship principles increasingly entering public administration (performance management, using of outsourced services, etc.), position-based systems establish, where employees are competing for every open vacancy without granted advantages for fi lling this position. Position-based systems encourage decentralization; it is easier to determine competences necessary for the position within them, and to remunerate them in accordance with situation at labour market, improving performance of work. The negative features of the position-based systems are that they are more expensive, do not encourage development of uniform organizational culture and they are easier to be infl uenced both economically and politically.95
At the current stage transition from bureaucracy to an alternative model of governance means even bigger complexity and contradictoriness. OECD research shows that transition takes place from:
1. Centralized employment rules to decentralized (employer is specifi c institution of public administration instead of state);
2. Statutory governance (providing open-ended work relations) to contractual or managerial governance (the concluded employment contracts are to be terminated or concluded for a defi nite period of time);
3. Career-based system to position-based system, questioning effi ciency of professional civil servants, and requiring professional and competent public employees instead;
91 OECD. (2005). Public Sector Modernisation: The Way Forward (Policy Brief ). OECD Observer, November 2005. OECD. (2008). The State of the Public Service. Paris: OECD Publishing.
92 OECD. (2008). The State of the Public Service. Paris: OECD Publishing.
93 Andrews, R. (2010). Organizational social capital, structure and performance. Human Relations, 63(5), 583-608. Kim, Y.
(2014). The Relation Between Policy Types and Organizational Structures in U.S. Federal Agencies: An Analysis Focused on Formalization, Span of Control, Headquarters Ratio, and Personnel Mobility. Administration & Society.
94 Rexed, K. (2007). The Pros and Cons of Career- and Position-based Systems. Presentation at the Good Governance for Development in Arab Countries Initiative, Rabat, May 24-25, 2007.
Available: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/16/39931908.ppt 95 Ibid.
4. In addition to the above mentioned delegation of responsibility to managers of intermediate and lower level increases.96
However, it is possible to interpret the described tendencies also otherwise – that transition to new governance model is not taking place, but instead the existing system is being supplemented by new elements97, for example, by combining the benefi ts of career-based system and position-based system, adaptation and fl exibility is encouraged, at the same time taking into consideration of collective interests.98 In order to adapt the historically established management model that provides correct implementation of state power to modern requirements and possibilities, it is being recommended to adapt the lawfully managed career-based systems to provision of traditional basic functions of the institutions. But for the service provision and other production functions it is recommended to apply contractually managed position-based system.99
When organizing changes in various public organizations, their specifi cs and factors characterizing their structures that might infl uence the nature and amount of required changes must be taken into consideration. Change of organizational structures is greatly infl uenced by development of information technologies that allow modifying organizational structures, providing effi cient and centralized processing of information. Development of technologies has modifi ed hierarchic structures into matrix structures, matrix structures into network structures, and now is forming
“virtual structures” (see Table 1.3.). Technologies are not management support instrument anymore, but instead they become the “virtual structure” of the organization themselves.100 Respectively, information technologies replace in real life existing bureaucratic, hierarchical structures, allowing any participant of the system to access information summarized on centralized basis that is necessary for decision taking.
Table 1.3. Environment factors and development of organization structures101
1950 – 1960-ties 1970 – 1980-ties 1990 – now Future
Degree of environmental uncertainty
Period of stability Period of transition Period of uncertainty
Period of increased uncertainty
Evolution of information processing
Routine vs.
non-routine
Vertical or horizontal information processing
Horizontal information processing
Network information processing
Evolution of organizational designs
Bureaucratic form Matrix form Network form Virtual form
96 OECD. (2008). The State of the Public Service. Paris: OECD Publishing; Rexed, K. (2007). The Pros and Cons of Career- and Position-based Systems. Presentation at the Good Governance for Development in Arab Countries Initiative, Rabat, May 24-25, 2007. Available: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/16/39931908.ppt
97 Emery, Y., & Giauque, D. (2014). The hybrid universe of public administration in the 21st century. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 80(1), 23-32.
98 OECD. (2005). Public Sector Modernisation: The Way Forward (Policy Brief ). OECD Observer, November 200.
99 Rexed, K. (2007). The Pros and Cons of Career- and Position-based Systems. Presentation at the Good Governance for Development in Arab Countries Initiative, Rabat, May 24-25, 2007.
Available: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/16/39931908.ppt
100 Dibrell, C.C., & Miller, T.R. (2002). Organization design: the continuing infl uence of information technology. Management Decision, 40(6), 620-627.
101 Ibid.
Introduction of solutions of information technologies in organization means that essential part of processing of information that was previously carried out by people either independently or coordinating their operation at several management levels, is being done automatically.
Coordination of action of employees does not need traditional hierarchical structures anymore, because the logics of adoption of decisions is built in information systems, creating parallel to the world, virtual environment. It allows delegating decision making to lower management levels and further allow organizations to become more fl exible within uncertain external environment.
Decentralization of decision making promotes initiative, linkage with local needs and responsiveness in local level.102 Decentralized structure of decision making does not increase complexity of work and promotes job satisfaction.103 Decentralization of decision making forms fl at organizational structures that are more fl exible upon testing and introducing innovative programmes and administrative systems. Flat organizational structures give more opportunities for employees to control working process personally, provide free knowledge transfer and allow employees to involve in working process more intensively104 that positively infl uences motivation of employees. At the same time, it is more diffi cult to provide uniform understanding of operational objective and mission of organization within the fl at organizational structures, what creates additional challenges to the managers.105 Direct managers can promote involvement of employees by setting clear rules, roles and responsibilities, as well as building personal relationship.106
Necessity to involve employees in organizational processes in more personal manner promotes forming of new individual and organizational forms of collaboration, applying various fl exible forms of work, for example, shorter working hours, nonstandard working hours, distant work and compressed working hours. Opportunity to work fl exible working hours is a benefi t that organization provides for its employees, taking into consideration opportunities caused by technologies and organization of work. Unlike other benefi ts, what organization allocates its employees, agreement on changes in organization of working hours is an interactive process, upon employee himself undertaking responsibility for application of working hours most appropriate for him. Exactly the fact that it is employee, not employer, who determines most appropriate working hours, enhances increase of employee job satisfaction.107 Job satisfaction positively aff ects productivity of work108, and application of fl exible working hours reduces rotation, while work outside the offi ce improves performance of work and reduces absence from work.109 According to the recent trends, in 2013, the State Chancellery also in Latvia developed guidelines for application of fl exible working hours in public administration110, what provide opportunity for the employed in public administration institutions to apply fl exible working hours as far as possible – variable working hours, part-time work, part-time working week, distant work –, maintaining the set duration of the daily or weekly work.
102 Andrews, R. (2010). Organizational social capital, structure and performance. Human Relations, 63(5), 583-608; Kim, Y. (2010). Stimulating Entrepreneurial Practices in the Public Sector: The Roles of Organizational Characteristics.
Administration & Society, 42(7), 780-814; Stavrou, E. T. (2005). Flexible work bundles and organizational competitiveness: a cross-national study of the European work context. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(8), 923-947.
103 Hansen, J. R., & Høst, V. (2012). Understanding the Relationships Between Decentralized Organizational Decision Structure, Job Context, and Job Satisfaction – A Survey of Danish Public Managers. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 32(3), 288-308.
104 Kim, Y. (2010). Stimulating Entrepreneurial Practices in the Public Sector: The Roles of Organizational Characteristics.
Administration & Society, 42(7), 780-814; Hansen, J. R., & Høst, V. (2012). Understanding the Relationships Between Decentralized Organizational Decision Structure, Job Context, and Job Satisfaction – A Survey of Danish Public Managers.
Review of Public Personnel Administration, 32(3), 288-308.
105 Andrews, R. (2010). Organizational social capital, structure and performance. Human Relations, 63(5), 583-608.
106 Ibid.
107 Kelliher, C., & Anderson, D. (2009). Doing more with less? Flexible working practices and the intensifi cation of work. Human Relations, 63(1), 83-106.
108 Judge, T.A., Thoresen, C.J., Bono, J.E., & Patton, G.K. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127(3), 376-407.
109 Stavrou, E.T. (2005). Flexible work bundles and organizational competitiveness: a cross-national study of the European work context. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(8), 923-947.
110 Available: http://www.mk.gov.lv/sites/default/fi les/editor/elastigs_darba_laiks_valsts_parvalde.pdf (sk.: 19.01.2015.)
The negative aspect of the application of fl exible working hours is increase of work intensity both for those, who work fewer working hours and for those, who work fl exible working hours. The experts interviewed within study indicate that application of the fl exible working hours includes assignment of particular working task to employee and planning of the time necessary for its performance. One of the problems of application of the fl exible working hours can be inadequate calculation of the time for performance on the part of managers, for example, when drawing up some document: “(..) classic problem – time is being calculated in absolutely inadequate manner. Things and activities are not counted in that are required to be performed in order, for example, for the document to be qualitative.
Research job has to be carried out, what you are going to write about, must be written, and then, when you write, you consult with the involved parties. These factors are being forgotten”.
When speaking about potential risks regarding work results, experts outline also other problems concerning application of the fl exible working hours that put additional workload on the manager.
One problem is connected with the sense of responsibility of employees: “(..) there are people, who will honestly tell that it took less time and I can do more, and there are people, who will never tell that.”
Thereby manager has to trust or continuously monitor the fact of performance of the particular working task. Second problem is connected with the motivation of employees to work while being outside their place of work: “(..) it must be considered (..) if it is effi cient, namely, if a person is really motivated to work at home or cafeteria.” This also requires the manager to trust the employee or additional control.
Since application of fl exible working hours is agreement between organization and individual, the perceived value of fl exible working hours (personal/ emotional benefi t) on the part of employee can be higher than the actual benefi t, making employee to work more. Intensifi cation of work is encouraged also by desire to meet expectations of colleagues regarding performance of work111, as well as opportunity provided by technologies to work outside working hours and being absent from work.112 Intensifi cation of work reduces employee job satisfaction, causing such problems as stress, reduced subjective welfare, and tension in family.113 So it can be said that fl exible working hours similarly to other material benefi ts allocated to employees initially increase job satisfaction and work performance, but, upon employees getting used to that, job satisfaction and work performance decrease. In order to promote the ability of employees to fully use opportunities provided by fl exible working hours and to reduce negative eff ects, arisen due to intensifi cation of work, organizations can promote the concept of work – life balance, strictly determine and control both accomplished working hours and workload of each individual, as well as to set restrictions for performance of work outside offi cial working hours (for example, prohibiting to send e-mails in order not to make additional pressure on colleagues and subordinates). For employees working fl exible working hours, special meaning is assigned to relationship with direct manager, whose professionalism dictates the wellbeing of employees, job satisfaction and the respective work performance.
Research that was carried out in 2012 on satisfaction of Latvian public administration employees with human resources management policy and its results demonstrates that such form of the fl exible working hours as distant work is being used in public administration very seldom114. Survey of public administration employees implemented by State Chancellery in 2014 reveals positive tendencies regarding following fl exible working hours and using distant work. In comparison with data of 2012,
111 Kelliher, C., & Anderson, D. (2009). Doing more with less? Flexible working practices and the intensifi cation of work. Human Relations, 63(1), 83-106.
112 Pedersen, V.B., & Lewis, S. (2012). Flexible friends? Flexible working time arrangements, blurred work-life boundaries and friendship. Work, Employment & Society, 26(3), 464-480.
113 Hansen, J.R., & Høst, V. (2012). Understanding the Relationships Between Decentralized Organizational Decision Structure, Job Context, and Job Satisfaction – A Survey of Danish Public Managers. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 32(3), 288-308; Kelliher, C., & Anderson, D. (2009). Doing more with less? Flexible working practices and the intensifi cation of work. Human Relations, 63(1), 83-106.
114 Baltiņa, I., Šenfelde, M. (2014). Latvijas valsts pārvaldes cilvēkresursu vadības politikas novērtējums un pilnveidošanas iespējas. Economics and Business. 2014/23: 26.-27.lpp.
Available: https://ortus.rtu.lv/science/en/publications/17497/fulltext. (accessed 20.01.2015.)
greater changes towards positive direction can be observed exactly on using the form of distant work – if in 2012 7% of the surveyed employees agreed that management supported using distant work (summarized answers “rather agree than disagree” and “fully agree”), then in survey of 2014 this indicator is 20%115.
On the whole, experts interviewed within the study expect that in future distant work will be applied more often in organizing of the work of public administration due to at least two reasons. Firstly, application of the distant work will be encouraged by international environment, for example, when working in work groups consisting of representatives of diff erent countries, employees of public administration can perform their direct duties also from distance. Secondly, under conditions of the expected lack of work force the distant work will allow attracting employees from regions to the work in public administration, as well as to keep those employees, who cannot work on-site work place due to personal reasons (for example, women taking care for children, or disabled people).