Activity Theory

The activity theory is an interdisciplinary approach to the complex phenomenon of the purposeful use of information technology by individuals and groups in social contexts based on cultural-historical psychology. The theory represents a conceptual framework for consideration of human activity; however, activity theory cannot be seen as finished or as a strongly “predictive” theory (Bertelsen & Bødker 2003). HCI researchers are able to use this framework as an analytical tool, although not as a guide for the design and evaluation of UIs.

Because of the attention paid to the social context, this theory provides insights for the collaborative aspect of the research topic of this thesis in particular.

Origins: The origins of this approach go back to Soviet psychologists, who analyzed how collective culture affects individual and collective thinking. The pioneers of this approach, Leontiev Vygotsky (1896-1934) and his colleagues, sought to study cognitive development as

a process of socialization, thus attempting to improve peasant life through communism.

After the revolution of 1917, there was great demand for a theory that could explain the social nature of human beings. Before this time, psychological theories were aimed at understanding the mental capacities of individual humans. With the activity theory, a new perspective on the cultural and technical mediation of human activity was developed that addressed the prevailing perspective of isolated people. Figure 1 shows the initial framework (triangle of activity) of the activity theory developed by Vygotsky and his collegues.

Figure 1 Activity Theory (Vygotsky)

In the definition of an activity from Vygotsky, one or more subjects (S) are able to reach an object/objective (O) via a mediation (X).

Aleksei Leontiev (1903-1979), a student of Vygotsky, refined this theory with regard to socially mediated activities (Figure 2). In addition to Vygotsky’s individual mediation (X), Leontiev introduced the idea of mediation by a community (C). The community – also called the social context – is represented by people who share the same object or objective (O).

The human subject (S) acts with or through other people in groups, communities, or organizations and is influenced by several social factors (e.g., culture or language).

Activity Subject (S)

Mediation (X)

Object (O)

experiences knowledge products person

group

technical instruments - tools psychological instruments - signs artifacts

{

Figure 2 Activity Theory (Leontiev)

The community (C) is added as a social mediation to reach an objective (O).

In the late 1980s, Scandinavian researchers rediscovered the activity theory and reformulated it, calling this new version the Scandinavian activity theory. The leading researcher in this effort was Engeström, who re-structured the framework into an activity system or “web of activities” (Engeström 1987) to emphasize some aspects important to HCI that were only implicitly mentioned in the original model. In this new framework (Figure 3), “rules” have been introduced as relationships between the subject (S) and the community (C). These either explicit or implicit relationships define how a subject is positioned in the community or social context. An additional concept, “division of labor”, describes the connection between the object/objectives (O) and the community (C).

Figure 3 Web of activities (Engeström 1987) Activity Subject (S)

Community (C)

Object (O)

experiences knowledge products person

group

social environment rules

rituals

Mediation (X)

Activity Subject (S)

Community (C)

Object (O)

Rules Division of Labor

Outcome

success well-being

Related elements of activity theory: The activity theory covers five related elements that define the framework in detail.

1. Object-Orientedness – In activity theory, the object or objective is described as the goal of the activity. Objectives give meaning to what people do and are not limited to physical artifacts.

Typical examples for objects are “to acquire knowledge”, “to build something”, or “to give a talk”.

2. Hierarchical Structure – Activity is defined as a hierarchically organized system. Activities can be split into smaller units called actions. These goal-directed actions need to be consciously processed in order to achieve the object. Actions can be broken down again into operations that are executed unconsciously and habitually. These elements of activity are not fixed and may change dynamically as conditions change.

One example for this hierarchical structure is the activity “to give a talk” that consists of several actions, such as “to read a text”, “to prepare slides”, and “to search for appropriate examples”. An operation in this scenario could be “to maneuver the mouse”.

3. Internalization-Externalization – Activity theory assumes that there are transitions between mental (internal) and external representations. This is a result of human cognition, which cannot be divorced from the external actions of individuals. Internality and externality is also connected with the community or social context (Figure 4). Therefore, activity theory defines two separate dimensions of human activity: internal/external and individual/social.

Figure 4 Two dimensions of human activity Internal

External

Individual Social

image of the world internal plan of actions

instrumental activity

attitude motivation

communication collaboration

Activity theory further specifies instruments used to alter these dimensions: internalization and externalization. By internalization, activity theory means the process of transforming conscious interactions with external objects into an unconscious plan of action, thus also changing the hierarchical structure. Internalization benefits from the human abilities to imagine, to consider alternative approaches, and to perform mental simulations. One typical example for internalization is the mathematical transition of children: in the beginning, they do number work with their fingers and hands (external), but after a while they learn to perform simple calculations in their heads without using their fingers (internal).

In contrast, externalization transforms an internal action into an external action. Unconscious and internalized behavior will be crystallized into a real-world action or artifact. This can be instigated for several reasons, such as changing conditions. One example is the execution of a calculation that would normally be completed mentally might be written out in full in a group situation so that the group members could follow each step.

4. Mediation – To achieve an object, activity is mediated by artifacts, also called instruments or tools. These artifacts are not necessarily represented externally (external artifacts); they can also be internal artifacts. External (physical) artifacts such as maps or diagrams assist in the mediation of external actions. These artifacts are often used in social situations to communicate with other individuals.

In contrast, the internal artifacts that occur in human minds are either natural psychological functions (e.g., imitation, results of practice, mental abilities, perception) or higher psychological functions (social experience) resulting from the processing of natural psychological functions in a cultural environment. These artifacts (e.g., language, numerical system) are utilized to enable people to interact with one another.

5. Development – Activity is described as a fluid state that continually changes as a consequence of contradictions and evolving requirements. This means, according to the web of activities (Engeström 1987) that one or more corner(s) change(s). To promote stability, activity theory proposes certain approaches, such as the development of the activity’s hierarchy (e.g., automation of actions through internalization, or conceptualization through externalization).

Conclusion: In summary, activity theory illustrates a framework that can be used to describe interactions with information technology by individuals and groups in social contexts. People or users are thereby regarded as socio-culturally embedded actors. The context of and

influences on these actors (subjects) can be analyzed with the web of activities. For the research topic of this thesis, in particular the community aspect and the mediation aspect with internal and external tools and their transitions will be taken into consideration.