The Management Alternatives for Control of Nonpoint Nitrate Pollution of Municipal Water Supply Sources

NOT FOR QUOTATION WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR

THE MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES FOR CONTROL OF NONPOINT NITRATE POLLUTION OF

MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY SOURCES

K.-H. Zwirnmann J. Kindler

G. Golubev April 1980 WP-80-51

Working Papers are interim reports on work of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and have received only limited review. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily repre- sent those of the Institute or of its National Member Organizations.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria

THE AUTHORS

K.-H. Zwirnmann i s a Research S c h o l a r a t IIASA on l e a v e from t h e I n s t i t u t e o f Water Management, B e r l i n , GDR.

J. K i n d l e r is t h e Resources and Environment Area Leader and Leader o f t h e Task "Regional Water Management" a t

IIASA. H e i s on l e a v e from t h e W a r s a w T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y , I n s t i t u t e o f Environmental E n g i n e e r i n g , W a r s a w , Poland.

G. Golubev i s Leader o f t h e Task "Environmental Problems o f A g r i c u l t u r e n a t IIASA. H e i s on leave from t h e Moscow S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Department o f Hydrology, Moscow, USSR.

PREFACE

Regional w a t e r management aims a t s a t i s f y i n g d i f f e r e n t s u p p l y i n t e r e s t s , where t h e s e i n t e r e s t s a r e o f t e n c o n f l i c t i n g . I n par- t i c u l a r , t h e competing i n t e r e s t s o f a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e environment, and m u n i c i p a l w a t e r s u p p l y , a r e becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t . I n t h i s s e t t i n g o f r e g i o n a l w a t e r management, n o n p o i n t n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n o f m u n i c i p a l w a t e r s u p p l y s o u r c e s i s one o f t h e most s e v e r e problems. A t p r e s e n t , t h i s problem i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e i n developed r e g i o n s w i t h high l e v e l s of f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t undoubtedly i n t h e f u t u r e , r e g i o n s which a r e now i n a d e v e l - o p i n g s t a g e w i l l a l s o f a c e t h e same problem.

So f a r , r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h a t IIASA h a s been c o n c e n t r a t e d i n Task 3 o f t h e Resources and Environment Area on "Environmental Problems of A g r i c u l t u r e . " T h i s work h a s d e a l t i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l - e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s a s t h e y a r e r e l a t e d t o c r o p p r o d u c t i o n and t h u s h a s a l s o provided i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i m - p o r t a n t r o l e o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e n i t r o g e n c y c l e .

Yet a n o t h e r s i d e o f t h e problem remains t o be c o n s i d e r e d , and t h i s i s r e l a t e d t o w a t e r s u p p l y and management. T h i s paper t h e r e f o r e proposes a s t u d y on management a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r con- t r o l o f nonpoint p o l l u t i o n o f m u n i c i p a l w a t e r supply s o u r c e s . The s t u d y aims a t i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a l r e a d y i n i t i a t e d s t u d i e s on "Environmental Problems o f A g r i c u l t u r e " w i t h IIASAts w a t e r management r e s e a r c h . A t t h e same t i m e , due t o t h e r o l e o f a g r i - c u l t u r e i n t h i s s t u d y , t h e s t u d y w i l l be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h IIASA's Food and A g r i c u l t u r e Program i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Moreover, because o f t h e need f o r m o d e l l i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n a n a l y z i n g t h e problem i n q u e s t i o n , t h e s t u d y w i l l u t i l i z e t h e r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s o f IIASA's a c t i v i t i e s on e c o l o g i c a l and w a t e r q u a l i t y m o d e l l i n g and t h e re- s e a r c h pursued by t h e Systems and D e c i s i o n S c i e n c e s Area a t IIASA.

Due t o t h e importance o f t h e problem f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f IIASA

'

s N a t k n a l Member O r g a n i z a t i o n s an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d y i n v o l v i n g IIASA and s e v e r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t NMO coun- t r i e s i s proposed. T h e r e f o r e , t h e paper h a s been w r i t t e n i n a s p e c i f i c form and i s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a t e n t a t i v e p l a n f o r c o l - l a b o r a t i o n w i t h i n and o u t s i d e IIASA i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e more comprehensive r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s . W e would t h e r e f o r e l i k e t o a s k o u r r e a d e r s f o r any comments, remarks, o r s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t c o u l d h e l p t o improve t h e c o u r s e o f o u r f u t u r e a c t i v i t i e s .

THE MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES FOR

CQNTROL OF NONPOINT NITRATE POLLUTION O F MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY SOURCES

K,-H. Zwirnmann, J. K i n d l e r , G. Golubev

IDENTIFICATION O F THE PROBLEM

I n many d e v e l o p e d and d e v e l o p i n g r e g i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , a s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r w a t e r i s c o n f r o n t i n g m u n i c i p a l w a t e r s u p p l y a g e n c i e s , The w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e

f o r s u p p l y a r e o f t e n a l r e a d y h e a v i l y u t i l i z e d , b u t a r e a l s o g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y o r q u a l i t y o f w a t e r .

One o f t h e most s e v e r e problems c o n c e r n i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f w a t e r s u p p l y i s t h a t o f n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n , because i t c r e a t e s a h e a l t h h a z a r d due t o the t o x i c e f f e c t s o f n i t r a t e s i n d r i n k i n g w a t e r , For example, a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n i t r a t e may c a u s e methaemoglobinaemia, which c a n l e a d t o the d e a t h o f i n f a n t s . Moreover, n i t r a t e c a n b e m e t a b o l i z e d i n t o n i t r o s a x n i n e , a po- t e n t i a l c a r c i n o g e n , These i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p u b l i c h e a l t h have l e d t h e World H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n t o s e t s t a n d a r d s f o r n i t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n d r i n k i n g water, I n i t s s t a n d a r d s , t h e WHO r e c - ommends t h a t n i t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s h o u l d b e l e s s t h a n 50 mg NO /1, b u t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s up t o 100 mg NO /1 a r e d e s c r i b e d a s a c J e p t a b l e , p r o v i d i n g t h a t l o c a l d o c t o r s a r e informed and a r e t h e r e f o r e aware o f problems w i t h i n f a n t s , Water w i t h n i t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h i g h e r t h a n 100 mg N 0 3 / 1 i s n o t recommended f o r d r i n k i n g water s u p p l y (WHO, 1 9 7 0 ) .

Atmospheric s o u r c e s ( i n c l u d i n g r a i n f a l l and b i o l o g i c a l f i x - a t i o n ) , w a s t e s o u r c e s s u c h a s a n i m a l , human, and i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s

(mainly i n t h e form o f manure o r sewage e f f l u e n t ) , and chemical f e r t i l i z e r s c o n s t i t u t e t h e major i n p u t s o f n i t r o g e n t o t h e w a t e r environment. The r e l a t i v e importance o f t h e s e i n p u t s d i f f e r from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n , N e v e r t h e l e s s , many s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t i n sev- e r a l c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g some pursued a t IIASA, have shown t h a t

chemical f e r t i l i z e r s a r e t h e major cause of r a p i d i n c r e a s e s i n n i t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n water r e s o u r c e s w i t h i n r e c e n t y e a r s . Also t a k i n g i n t o account t h e dependence of manure a v a i l a b i l i t y , b i o l o g i c a l f i x a t i o n , and even r a i n f a l l - r e l a t e d h y d r o l o g i c a l processes on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , t h e important r o l e of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e n i t r o g e n c y c l e becomes f u l l y e v i d e n t .

F e r t i l i z e r n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n i s a t y p i c a l c a s e of nonpoint s o u r c e water p o l l u t i o n . I n t h e p a s t , p o i n t s o u r c e p o l l u t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l and municipal o r i g i n has r e c e i v e d most a t t e n t i o n i n water management. While c o n t r o l o f t h i s kind of p o l l u t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by known c o s t and has a l r e a d y demonstrated i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s , t h i s does n o t h o l d t o t h e same e x t e n t f o r t h e management of a g r i c u l t u r a l nonpoint s o u r c e p o l l u t i o n . Due t o t h e many v a r i a b l e s involved i n t h i s p r o c e s s , it i s n o t a s t r a i g h t f o r - ward problem t o s o l v e and t h e development o f recommendations f o r management, i n c l u d i n g c o s t e s t i m a t e s , i s n o t an e a s y one. Never- t h e l e s s , t h e r e is no doubt t h a t t h e r e g i o n a l e f f e c t s on water

r e s o u r c e s caused by nonpoint s o u r c e p o l l u t i o n cannot be c o n t r o l l e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l w a t e r t r e a t m e n t measures a l o n e . More emphasis must be placed on p r e c a u t i o n a r y a c t i o n s based on economic and i n s t i t u t i o n a l measures t h a n on r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s once t h e y a r e a l r e a d y p o l l u t e d .

The water supply s o u r c e s of a r e g i o n a r e r i v e r s , l a k e s , and s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s , a s w e l l a s groundwater a q u i f e r s . A l l o f them a r e more o r less t h r e a t e n e d by d e p l e t i o n and p o l l u t i o n . Consequently, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between groundwater and s u r f a c e w a t e r , a s w e l l a s between w a t e r q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y , have t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n r e g i o n a l w a t e r r e s o u r c e s management planning. One of t h e q u e s t i o n s t o be answered i s how water supply and manage- ment a r e i n f l u e n c e d by i n c r e a s i n g n i t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n w a t e r r e s o u r c e s and how a s a f e d r i n k i n g water supply can be ensured.

A l l t h e s e f a c t s demonstrate t h e need f o r r e g i o n a l systems f o r management and c o n t r o l o f nonpoint n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n of mu- n i c i p a l water supply s o u r c e s . Such systems must be c a p a b l e o f c o n s i d e r i n g t h e dynamic r e l a t i o n s h i p s between water supply, i t s management,and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r .

OBJECTIVES AND EXPECTED RESULTS OF THE STUDY

The main o b j e c t i v e o f t h e s t u d y i s t o develop an approach t o a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n o f management a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r con- t r o l of f e r t i l i z e r n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n of municipal water supply s o u r c e s . Since no s p e c i f i c c a s e s t u d y is planned f o r t h e time being a t I I A S A , t h e main concern is t o e x p l o r e a n a l y t i c approaches a l r e a d y pursued i n I I A S A ' s NMO c o u n t r i e s and t o g e n e r a t e a metho- d o l o g i c a l o u t l i n e of an approach f o c u s i n g on t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of a l l t h e r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e problem. The main d e f i c i e n c y of e x i s t i n g approaches i s t h a t u s u a l l y o n l y s i n g l e components o f t h e o v e r a l l management system a r e d e a l t with. But i n r e a l i t y , t h e system encompasses t h e n a t u r a l water r e s o u r c e s t o be managed, t h e r e s p e c t i v e management measures both f o r a g r i c u l t u r e and w a t e r ,

and t h e economics of f e a s i b l e management a l t e r n a t i v e s . The study i s t h e r e f o r e t o be based on t h e concept of a d e c i s i o n making pro- c e s s encompassing t h e whole system a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 .

The major components t o be c o n s i d e r e d a r e :

t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s ( a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e p u b l i c i n g e n e r a l ) , t o be s u p p l i e d w i t h w a t e r and a g r i c u l t u r a l com- m o d i t i e s , govern t h e whole system by s e t t i n g t h e manage- ment o b j e c t i v e s t o be achieved; a t t h e same time t h e y a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n of municipal w a t e r supply s o u r c e s by t h e d i s p o s a l o f human and i n d u s t r i a l wastes:

t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r c a u s i n g n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n of water r e s o u r c e s a s a s i d e e f f e c t of i t s a c t i v i t i e s i n a c h i e v i n q production g o a l s I n a g r i c u l t u r e ;

t h e system of municipal water supply s o u r c e s such a s r i v e r s , l a k e s , s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s , and a q u i f e r s , and i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e environment, which p r o v i d e s t h e n a t u r a l background

load of n i t r o g e n t o w a t e r r e s o u r c e s ; t h i s subsystem i s managed by a g e n c i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s a f e water supply t o m u n i c i p a l i t i e s ;

t h e management subsystem encompassing t h e p l a n n i n g component (water q u a l i t y monitoring, i n c l u d i n g d a t a management, a n a l - y s i s of w a t e r supply s o u r c e s , and management a l t e r n a t i v e s ) and t h e implementation of management a l t e r n a t i v e s by tech- n o l o g i c a l , economic, and i n s t i t u t i o n a l measures i n t h e f i e l d of water supply and management a s w e l l a s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r .

While t h e subsystems o f environment, water supply s o u r c e s , a g r i c u l t u r e , and m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a r e l i n k e d by mass flows ( w a t e r , a q r i c u l t u r a l commodities, n i t r a t e ) and c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s i s and

t h e

t a r g e t f o r d e c i s i o n making, ampnents of t h e planning subsystem a r e l i n k e d by t h e flow o f information. The l i n k a g e between t h e s e two main p a r t s o f t h e system i s provided by t h e implementation of management a l t e r n a t i v e s through t h e r e s p e c t i v e measures t o be taken.

The expected r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y a r e twofold. F i r s t t h e methodological o u t l i n e i s t o be developed a s a b a s i s f o r a p p l y i n g a p p r o p r i a t e methods t o a r e a l c a s e s t u d y which might be i n i t i a t e d a t IIASA i n 1981. For t h e time b e i n g , t h e methodological prob- lems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e management o f n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n of water r e s o u r c e s should be demonstrated by b r i e f c a s e h i s t o r i e s from d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . By approaching t h e problem i n t h i s way, it

i s hoped t h a t t i m e l y a s s i s t a n c e can be given t o d e c i s i o n makers.

Consequently, t h e s t u d y w i l l provide r e s u l t s of s c i e n t i f i c and p r a c t i c a l importance t o t h e m a j o r i t y of IIASA's National Member O r g a n i z a t i o n s .

SCOPE O F THE STUDY

The s t u d y w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e system shown i n F i g u r e 1 a s f a r a s i t s components r e l a t e t o t h e p r o c e s s of water q u a l i t y management.

According t o Wilson e t a l . ( 1 9 7 6 ) , such a p r o c e s s encompasses t h e

Figure 1. The system o f management and control o f fertilizer nitrate pollution of municipal water supply sources.

f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f w a t e r q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o b j e c t i v e s ; a n a l y s i s o f t h e w a t e r q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y f a c t o r s p l a y i n g d e c i s i v e r o l e s i n t h e s p e c i f i c r e g i o n , e . g . , a n a l y s i s o f t h e m u n i c i p a l w a t e r s u p p l y s o u r c e s and t h e n i t r o g e n s o u r c e s i n

t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ;

a n a l y s i s o f t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e r e g i o n t o f u l f i l l ob- j e c t i v e s w i t h o u t any p l a n n i n g a c t i o n , e . g . , t h r o u g h w a t e r q u a l i t y m o n i t o r i n g and e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t a n a l y s i s ;

f o r m u l a t i o n o f f e a s i b l e management a l t e r n a t i v e s t o a c h i e v e t h e ob j e c t i v e s ;

a n a l y s i s o f e a c h management a l t e r n a t i v e , t o g e t h e r w i t h e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s and t h e d e g r e e o f a c h i e v e m e n t o f o b j e c t i v e s , e . g . , t h r o u g h t h e j o i n t

u s e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t a n a l y s i s and economic a n a l y s i s o f management a l t e r n a t i v e s ;

s e l e c t i o n o f t h e management a l t e r n a t i v e t h a t e n s u r e s t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y d e g r e e o f a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s ;

p l a n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , e . g . , i n t h e f i e l d o f w a t e r s u p p l y and management a s w e l l a s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r .

Taking i n t o a c c o u n t t h e m a j o r s t e p s o f t h i s p r o c e s s , a more d e t a i l e d framework f o r d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s y s t e m a s shown i n F i g u r e

1 i s o u t l i n e d below.

Management O b j e c t i v e s

The management o b j e c t i v e s t o b e a c h i e v e d w i t h i n t h e frame- y o r k o f t h e s y s t e m p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 r e l a t e t o t h e s u p p l y o f

w a t e r i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y a s w e l l a s t o t h e a c h i e v e - ment o f p r o d u c t i o n g o a l s i n a g r i c u l t u r e . The m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a r e v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o f a i l u r e s i n a c h i e v i n g t h e above o b j e c t i v e s ; s u c h f a i l u r e s l e a d t o p u b l i c h e a l t h h a z a r d s a n d / o r r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l commodities. T h e r e i s no d o u b t however, t h a t t h e y h a v e a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n f i n d i n g s o l u t i o n s t o t h e emerging c o n f l i c t between p e r m a n e n t l y d e t e r i o r a t i n g q u a l i t y o f m u n i c i p a l w a t e r s u p p l y s o u r c e s and a s i m u l t a n e o u s need f o r

i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . Both t h e m u n i c i p a l i - t i e s and t h e p u b l i c c a n d e c i s i v e l y i n f l u e n c e t h e s e t t i n g o r chang- i n g o f management o b j e c t i v e s .

I t i s n o t t h e i n t e n t i o n h e r e t o c o n s i d e r i n d e p t h t h e d e b a t e on t h e WHO n i t r a t e s t a n d a r d s , which d e t e r m i n e t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f n i t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n d r i n k i n g w a t e r , e s p e c i a l l y a s d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e a nonuniform a t t i t u d e t o t h i s prob- lem. The s t u d y w i l l , however, c o n s i d e r h e a l t h i m p a c t a s p e c t s o f n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n . T h i s a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e a n a l y s i s o f p o s s i b l e changes i n s t a n d a r d l i m i t s . Moreover, v a r i a b l e s h a v i n g e f f e c t s on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a s w e l l a s c h a n g e s i n t h e s t a n d a r d s must b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

N i t r o g e n S o u r c e s i n t h e Environment

The s t u d y h a s t o c l a r i f y t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f v a r i o u s n i t r o g e n s o u r c e s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a g r i c u l t u r e , a s t h e main c a u s e f o r n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n , w i l l b e d e a l t w i t h .

Food s u p p l y t o a s t e a d i l y growing p o p u l a t i o n r e q u i r e s h i g h y i e l d s i n a g r i c u l t u r e and a h i g h q u a l i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s . These aims a r e a c h i e v e d by u s i n g modern a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n o l o g i e s , among which t h e u s e o f c h e m i c a l f e r t i l i z e r s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . About 50% o f t h e i n c r e m e n t s o f c r o p y i e l d s i n r e c e n t y e a r s a r e a s c r i b e d t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f f e r t i l i z e r s ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i - a t i o n o f H y d r o g e o l o g i s t s , 1979) and t h e w o r l d p r o d u c t i o n o f f e r t i - l i z e r s i s s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g , a s shown i n T a b l e 1 .

T a b l e 1. Annual w o r l d p r o d u c t i o n o f n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r , 1966- 1976.

1966- 1967- 1968- 1969- 1970- 1971- 1972- 1973- 1974- 1975- 1976-

Year 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

P r o d u c t i o n 22.4 25.5 28.4 30.2 33.0 35.0 37.8 40.4 42.5 43.8 45.9 o f N i t r o -

gen F e r t i l - i z e r s

( m i l l i o n t o n s 1

Source: Annual F e r t i l i z e r s Review, o f FAO, 1976,1977, 1978.

To f e e d t h e c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d w i t h p r o t e i n a t t o d a y ' s l e v e l o f p r o t e i n consumption f o r d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , would r e q u i r e a b o u t 500 m i l l i o n t o n s o f n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r s

( W h i t e - S t e v e n s , 1 9 7 7 ) . P r o j e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e a r i s e i n f e r t i l i z e r p r o d u c t i o n i n s p i t e o f t h e growing c o s t o f e n e r g y .

When a p p l y i n g f e r t i l i z e r s t o c r o p s , a n i n i t i a l p a r t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e s t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n y i e l d s , g e n e r a l l y s e v e r a l t e n s o f p e r c e n t i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h u n f e r t i l i z e d c r o p s . Above a c e r t a i n v a l u e , however, t h e i n c r e m e n t s i n y i e l d become s m a l l e r and s m a l l e r and f i n a l l y t h e r e i s no f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e

i n y i e l d d e s p i t e t h e i n c r e a s i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f f e r t i l i z e r . Ac- c o r d i n g l y , t h e excess amount o f f e r t i l i z e r i s n o t u t i l i z e d by p l a n t s and w i l l e v e n t u a l l y , p o s s i b l y i n m o d i f i e d form, p a s s t o s u r f a c e and g r o u n d w a t e r s .

M u n i c i p a l Water Supply S o u r c e s

The r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f w a t e r s u p p l y s o u r c e s ( r i v e r s , l a k e s , r e s e r v o i r s , a n d a q u i f e r s ) depends m a i n l y on t h e n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e g i v e n r e g i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , g r o u n d w a t e r r e - s o u r c e s p l a y a key r o l e i n d r i n k i n g w a t e r s u p p l y f o r many coun- t r i e s . Given t h e dominant i n f l u e n c e o f n o n p o i n t n i t r a t e s o u r c e s on groundwater p o l l u t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s to _{be paid} here to t h e s e r e s o u r c e s . I n d o i n g s o , w e a l s o keep i n mind t h a t t h e r e i s a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e between g r o u n d w a t e r and s u r f a c e w a t e r p o l l u t i o n and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e management s t r a t e g i e s . While t h e d e c i s i o n t o r e s t o r e s u r f a c e w a t e r i s made w i t h t h e knowledge t h a t s u r f a c e w a t e r q u a l i t y c a n b e r e s t o r e d r e l a t i v e l y q u i c k l y , t h e same i s n o t t r u e f o r g r o u n d w a t e r where p o l l u t a n t s may b e r e t a i n e d f o r d e c a d e s o r even c e n t u r i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e f u l l y r e c o g n i z e t h e f a c t t h a t e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f f e r t i l i z e r n i t r a t e 901- l u t i o n on g r o u n d w a t e r s r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n - s h i p s between g r o u n d w a t e r and s u r f a c e water r e s o u r c e s o f t h e r e g i o n .

P l a n n i n g o f

ate?

Q u a l i t y Management A l t e r n a t i v e s

The management and c o n t r o l o f w a t e r q u a l i t y depends f i r s t o f a l l on a n a p p r o p r i a t e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s t a t e o f w a t e r q u a l i t y . For example, t h e U . S . E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency h a s d e v e l - oped a comprehensive c e f i n i t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s f o r m o n i t o r i n g i n t h e c o n t e x t o f management and c o n t r o l (Meyer, 1 9 7 3 ) :

M o n i t o r i n q o f w a t e r q u a l i t y m i g h t b e d e f i n e d a s a s c i e n t i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d program o f c o n t i n u i n g s u r - v e i l l a n c e , i n c l u d i n g d i r e c t s a m p l i n g and r e m o t e q u a l i t y measurements, i n v e n t o r y o f e x i s t i n g and p o t e n t i a l c a u s e s o f c h a n g e , and a n a l y s i s o f t h e c a u s e o f p a s t q u a l i t y changes and p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f f u t u r e q u a l i t y c h a n g e s .

Based on s u c h a d e f i n i t i o n , w a t e r q u a l i t y m o n i t o r i n g w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p o l l u t i o n o f groundwater by n i t r a t e s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d . ' Needs, o b j e c t i v e s , and c o n s t r a i n t s o f moni-

t o r i n g ; and p u r p o s e s , d e s i g n , and o p e r a t i o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n n e t w o r k s , a s w e l l a s m o n i t o r i n g methods, w i l l b e d e a l t w i t h . The problem

o f managing the d a t a g a i n e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f m o n i t o r i n g must a l - so be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t b e c a u s e w a t e r q u a l i t y management and c o n t r o l c a n n o t b e f u l l y e f f e c t i v e w i t h o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g some k i n d o f d a t a management s y s t e m ,

E n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t a n a l y s i s and economic a n a l y s i s o f man- agement a l t e r n a t i v e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o r e o f p l a n n i n g f o r w a t e r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l . F o r o p t i m a l p l a n n i n g t h e j o i n t u s e o f t h e s e two t y p e s o f a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d .

With regard to environmental impact analysis two main ob-.

jectives have to be achieved:

identification of the problem in order to assessits magni- tude and timing; this requires macroscopic information on temporal and spatial variations of nitrate pollution;

understanding of water quality changes as space and time dependent processes, including their mathematical descrip- tion, to be used for forecasting purposes.

While the first objective relates primarily to the process of water quality monitoring and data management, the second con- tributes more to the analysis of management alternatives.

In discussing the use of mathematical models, usually two classes of techniques, optimization and simulation, are distin- guished. Due to the complexity of water resources systems, the direct use of optimization techniques for determining the best alternati- is often not advisable. More often, simulation mod- els have to be used to test the alternatives. These models there- fore play, and will continue to play, a primary part in water

quality management. Such models have to be assessed according to the scale of the problem (field, region) and according to the time scale (short-term and long-term) required for water quality management. As indicated above, this requires joint considera- tion of groundwater and surface water.

Provisionally the simulation models to be used for environ- mental impact and economic analysis may be grouped .into agricul- tural nonpoint pollution models, grcundwater quality models, and water resource system models that are capable of integrating all the individual components of a catchment for overall planning purposes. The aim of the proposed study is not to develop new models but to assess the available models relating to the nitrate pollution problem and to prepare guidelines for their integration and practical use. Of particular interest is the conjunctive use of decision oriented models and process oriented models describing environmental impacts of man's activity, physical processes, etc.

Special attention will be paid to elaborating a framework for multiobjective decision making in water quality management and control.

Implementation of Management Alternatives

The management objectives are usually achieved through an integrated implementation of technical, institutional, and eco- nomic measures. Two general alternatives for water quality man- agement can be distinguished: one is related to the concept of controlling potential pollution sources; the other relates to the treatment of polluted water and special measures to protect water supply

Problems facing municipal water supply in the short run, for example, the need for alternative sources, new water treatment pro- cedures, or special supply measures, create additional costs.

However, the most effective management of fertilizer nitrate pol-

lution results from control of fertilizer application, irrigation,

and o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s a s w e l l a s p r o p e r l a n d u s e man- agement. The development and a p p l i c a t i o n o f new k i n d s of f e r t i l -

i z e r s and i n h i b i t o r s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g f e r t i l i z e r r e l e a s e o r t r a n s - f o r m a t i o n a l s o have t o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

The s t u d y w i l l examine d i f f e r e n t p r a c t i c e s f o r t h e c o n t r o l of f e r t i l i z e r l o s s from a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n p a r t i c u - l a r , t h e e f f e c t s o f r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e u s e o f n i t r o g e n f e r t i l - - i z e r and t h e i r economic consequences w i l l 'be c o n s i d e r e d . Equal emphasis w i l l be g i v e n t o c o n t r o l measures t o b e t a k e n i n t h e f i e l d o f w a t e r s u p p l y . F e a s i b l e c o u n t e r measures w i l l be ex- amined and a s s e s s e d , i n c l u d i n g c o s t e s t i m a t e s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e measures mentioned s o f a r , o t h e r i n s t i - t u t i o n a l , l e g a l , and economic measures f o r i r q l e m e n t i n g manage- ment a l t e r n a t i v e s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n w i l l b e g i v e n t o t h e f a c t t h a t p r a c t i c a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n con- t r o l measures depends s t r o n g l y on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f r e g i o n a l au- t h o r i t i e s and t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s .

ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

A m e t h o d o l o g i c a l o u t l i n e on "The Management A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r C o n t r o l o f Nonpoint N i t r a t e P o l l u t i o n o f Municipal Water Supply S o u r c e s " w i l l be w r i t t e n . T h i s r e p o r t w i l l t e n t a t i v e l y c o n s i s t o f f o u r major p a r t s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g t o p i c s :

t h e problem:

c a u s e s and consequences ( e . g , m u n i c i p a l w a t e r demand and s u p p l y , t h e h e a l t h h a z a r d i s s u e o f n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n , n i - t r o g e n s o u r c e s i n t h e environment, t h e need f o r w a t e r q u a l i t y management) ;

a n a l y z i n g t h e problem:

methods o f a n a l y s i s ( e . g . , w a t e r q u a l i t y m o n i t o r i n g and d a t a management, e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact a n a l y s i s , economic a n a l y s i s o f management a l t e r n a t i v e s , s i m u l a t i o n t e c h - n i q u e s , and m u l t i o b j e c t i v e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g ) ;

s o l v i n g t h e problem:

p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f management a l t e r n a t i v e s ( e . g . , t e c h n o l o g i c a l measures i n w a t e r s u p p l y and manage- ment, c o n t r o l o f f e r t i l i z e r l o s s e s from a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i - c a t i o n s , i n s t i t u t i o n a l , l e g a l , and economic measures) ;

c a s e h i s t o r i e s .

I n c l o s i n g , t h e r e p o r t w i l l examine p o s s i b l e recommendations a d d r e s s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h o s e d e a l i n g o p e r a t i o n a l l y w i t h t h e problem i n q u e s t i o n .

REFERENCES

I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f H y d r o g e o l o g i s t s . 1979. Working P a p e r s s u b m i t t e d t o IAH Commission f o r Groundwater Pro- t e c t i o n from I n f l u e n c e s o f A g r i c u l t u r a l A c t i v i t i e s , F i r s t S e s s i o n i n Karlovy Vary, CSSR.

Meyer, C.F., e d . 1973. P o l l u t e d Groundwater: Some Causes, E f f e c t s , C o n t r o l s , and M o n i t o r i n g . U.S. Environmental Pro- t e c t i o n Agency R e p o r t EPA-600/4-73-0076.

White-Stevens, R. 1977. P e r s p e c t i v e s on F e r t i l i z e r U s e , Residue U t i l i z a t i o n , and Food P r o d u c t i o n . I n : Food, F e r t i l i z e r , and A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s i d u e s , e d i t e d by R. Loehr. Ann Arbor:

Ann Arbor S c i e n c e .

Wilson, J . L . , R.L. Lenton, and J. P o r r a s . 1976. Groundwater P o l l u t i o n : Technology, Economics, and Management. MIT Report N o . TR 2 0 8 .

World Health O r g a n i z a t i o n . 1970. European S t a n d a r d s f o r Drink- i n g Water. Second E d i t i o n , Copenhagen.