effzett FORSCHUNGSZENTRUM JÜLICH’S MAGAZINE
2-17
ROOTS How roots increase
the yield of crops
NETWORKS How researchers aim
to decode the brain
VORTICES
What makes skyrmions so exciting
trust? Who can we still
New colleague is a bright spark
The colossus stands broad-shouldered on his massive feet at the edge of the path. He took a trip to the lake to have his photo taken here, where he caught the interest of people passing by. The “second-hand terminator”
normally stands guard in front of the joint workshop of the Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI) and the Jülich Centre for Neutron Science (JCNS). In contrast to his namesake from the action films, however, this 2-metre giant smiles at everyone he meets. His design owes itself to the colleagues at the workshop, who instead of simply
throwing away disused parts decided to breathe new life into them.
3 TOPICS
NE WS IN BRIEF
5
COVER STORY
A question of trust
Science is viewed as trustworthy, but doubts are
lurking in many areas
8
RESE ARCH
Delicate miracles
Increasing the yield of plants – with the aid of roots
16
Using super- computers to
understand the brain
The Human Brain Project unites the fields of neuroscience and
information technology.
20
Progress through separation
New membrane separates hydrogen from a gas mixture
particularly efficiently.
23
Causing a stir in the nanoworld
Skyrmions expected to make even smaller computer
components possible.
24
Water shortage in Europe’s vegetable patch
Climate change: Mediterranean region faces increasing drought.
26
Trees influence cloud formation
Stressed plants can alter the formation of clouds.
28
Transparent and flexible
New materials for organic solar cells
29
SECTIONS Editorial
4
Publication details 4
What’s your research all about?
19 2.2 plus
30 Thumbs up
31
Research in a tweet 32
Publication details
Translation: Language Services, Forschungs
zentrum Jülich
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Tobias Wojciechowski (30), Heliatek/Tim Deussen effzett Forschungszentrum Jülich’s magazine
ISSN 14337371
Published by: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
Conception and editorial work: Annette Stettien, Dr. Barbara Schunk, Christian Hohlfeld, Dr. Anne Rother (responsible under German Press Law)
Authors: Marcel Bülow, Dr. Frank Frick, Christian Hohlfeld, Dr. Jens Kube, Katja Lüers, Dr. Regine Panknin, SarahJoana Pütz, Dr. Arndt Reuning, Tobias Schlößer, Dr. Barbara Schunk, Brigitte StahlBusse, Jochen Steiner, Dr. Janine van Ackeren, Erhard Zeiss
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the snake while hypnotizing Mowgli in Walt Disney’s film adaptation of The Jungle Book. The man-cub only just manages to escape from the snake’s deceitful trick when the tiger Shere Khan distracts the python and Mowgli runs away. Scientists, meanwhile, aim to ensure that people place their trust in them and, above all, their results without resorting to trickery and hypnosis. This is not always an easy task in a world in which self-appointed experts voice their opinions across the web and in which alternative facts are simply sold as truths. In our cover story, we therefore aim to assess the current state of trust in science.
And if afterwards you are interested in discovering some more
“real” facts then why not read about why the roots of plants are so important? Or which vortex in the world of nanotechnology there are high hopes for? As always, we have double-checked all information in this issue of effzett – as have our scientists. However, if you should find any errors, please let us know. Because ultimately, speaking about errors openly plays a crucial part in establishing a trusting relationship.
We hope you enjoy reading this issue.
Your effzett editorial team
You can now read effzett on all devices – from your smartphone to your PC.
Instead of downloading the app, simply access the magazine online:
effzett.fz-juelich.de/en Now also availa-
ble as an online magazine
NEW:
5 NE WS IN BRIEF
An international team of researchers has discovered a mechanism behind the “sense of smell” in bacteria.
Using X-ray crystallography, the team decoded structur- al changes in a component of Escherichia coli bacteria.
The NarQ protein (pictured), a tiny molecular machine,
“smells” certain substances in its surroundings and sends a corresponding signal internally through the cell membrane.
If this mechanism can be controlled, it could pave the way for the development of new antibiotics. The latter would not kill off bacteria, instead rendering them harmless via
an interference signal.
– INS TITUTE OF C OMPLE X SYS TE MS –
BIOCHEMISTRY
Smelling machine
SIMUL ATION
Barriers in your mind
A pathway surrounded by crowd control barriers can help to avoid pushing and shoving at major events while providing more space for indi-
viduals. These were the findings of a large-scale experiment. This effect cannot be explained by any physical model alone. It is much more down to psychological aspects, scientists from Jülich and Bochum found.
– JÜLIC H SUPE R C OMPUTING C E NTRE –
Optical signal transmission via fibre-optic cables ensures lower losses and is much more efficient than via electrical cables, meaning it has long been the standard for long distances. Jülich scientists, together with international partners, have now taken an important step towards the integration of optical components directly on a computer chip. They developed a diode which in addition to sili- con and germanium also contains tin, thus improving its
optical properties for the transmission of data between processors and storage systems, for example.
– PE TE R G RÜNBE R G INS TITUTE –
NANOELECTRONICS
Tin in the diode
50 percent . . .
… of all people carry the bacterium Helicobacter pylori in their stomach. In Germany, around 33 million
people are infected with the bacterium, and are therefore susceptible to stomach ulcers, gastritis,
and stomach cancer. An international team of researchers has now used neutron scattering to decode the function of an important enzyme in the
pathogen’s metabolism. As this protein does not occur in the human organism, it is viewed as a
promising candidate for the development of a drug that specifically targets the bacterium.
– JÜLIC H C E NTRE F OR NE UTR ON S C IE NC E –
Whether it be batteries, solar panels, or wind turbines, technologies associated with the transformation
of the German energy sector (Energiewende) require customized materials which are both affordable
and efficient. Jülich researchers have now made the search for such
materials a great deal easier after developing a special electron source
which cuts the measurement time of material surfaces from days to just minutes. The source also for the
first time enables unstable or very sensitive material samples to be
easily determined.
– PE TE R G RÜNBE R G INS TITUTE –
measurements
7
Jülich materials specialists have developed a 10-metre-long tape-casting facility called JuCast
3-500. It combines ceramic coat- ings of 3 to 500 micrometres in thickness in any order, and in a way that is faster and cheaper than previous models. High-performance ceramics form the foundation of fuel cells, solid-state batteries, and gas
separation membranes.
COMBINING COATINGS QUICKER
The international climate research project IAGOS has expanded its fleet further. Hawaiian Airlines has become the first American airline to join the project, thus extending the measuring network to include a lo- cation in the Pacific. IAGOS has been equipping commercial air liners with highly sensitive measuring technolo- gy since 1994. Data from the project
are freely accessible.
IAGOS EXTENDS MEASURING NET WORK
Forschungszentrum Jülich ranks among the publicly funded insti-
tutions contributing the most to advancing science and technol-
ogy worldwide. In a ranking of the Top Global Innovators published by media company Thomson Reuters, Jülich came in 21st place. Over 600 scientific
institutions were analysed for the ranking.
STRONG INTER- NATIONAL PRESENCE
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is reporting of a strong rise in the amount of ethane
in the atmosphere. Jülich climate researcher Dr. Martin Schultz, chair of the Scientific Advisory
Group for Reactive Gases at WMO, explains why this is the case.
Dr. Schultz, why is more ethane a problem?
Ethane plays a part in the formation of ozone near ground level and indicates increased greenhouse gas emissions. For thirty years, ethane emissions were on
the decline; now they are increasing again.
Where does the ethane come from?
We are only seeing a significant increase in the northern hemisphere – particularly in the USA in areas
with intensive oil and gas production, which has been massively expanded in the last few years.
What needs to be done?
Ethane emissions from oil and gas production are largely dependent on the technology and state of repair
of the respective production facilities. Emissions of ethane could be significantly reduced through effective
checks and legal requirements for emission limits.
THE QUE S TIONS WE RE P O SE D BY RE G INE PANKNIN
ASK AN E XPERT
Renewed increase
in ethane
Making an apology is worthwhile – even for things completely out of our control such as bad weather. Showing compassion in this way helps create trust. This was the finding of a team of US scientists headed by Dr. Alison Wood Brooks from the Harvard Business School.
Sorry about
the rain!
9
Trust is a tricky thing: We cross the road at zebra crossings trusting that drivers will stop for us, we get on planes placing our faith in the technology and the pilot – albeit sometimes with a feeling of unease – and drive onto architectural miracles such as the Golden Gate Bridge assuming that the structural engineers have done their job properly.
In contrast, other situations leave us feeling mis- trustful, questioning the opinions of scientists on climate change or the vaccination recommenda- tions of doctors. Surveys have shown that science enjoys a huge bonus of trust among society. And yet, daily newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung has observed a certain mistrust when it comes to science, and weekly newspaper Die Zeit goes so far as to speak of a “crisis of trust”.
According to the 2016 Wissenschaftsbarometer survey, trust in science primarily depends on the subject matter. People tend to be much more mis- trustful of scientific opinions on climate change or green genetic engineering, for instance, than they are where renewable energy is concerned.
Trust seems to be based on much more than just
rationality. It develops out of uncertainty, and scepticism also plays a part. As does expectation:
do people behave as I expect them to? These
“soft” factors play an important role in establish- ing a trusting relationship between science and society.
SYMPATHY ALONE IS NOT ENOUGH
Prof. Hans Peter Peters is an expert in issues of trust. The communication scientist conducts research at Jülich’s Ethics in the Neurosciences subinstitute. He is also adjunct professor of science journalism at Freie Universität Berlin.
Whenever the credibility of science is placed in doubt, Peters’ expertise is called upon. This morning, he is sitting in his office, waiting. He has an alert expression as he shakes my hand and gives me a warm welcome. My first impression of Peters is that he is likeable. “But does that mean I can trust you as a scientist?” Peters laughs:
“That’s a good question. I would refer you to my publications, which were reviewed by colleagues, as well as to my account on Research Gate.”
Around 10 million scientists are registered on this
Science enjoys a great degree of credibility, with Germans placing more trust in it than in politics or industry. Or perhaps
not. Facts alone do not convince everyone – trust isn’t simply a matter of rational thinking. On top of this, fake news
and alternative facts are on the rise. According to the media, trust is dwindling. So how do Jülich researchers manage the balancing act between trust, facts, and gut
instincts? We get to the bottom of the matter.
A question
of trust
What complicates the matter further is that the two levels influence each other. “For example, many people state that they trust in science overall – this is the general type of trust. Then an expert comes along and claims that green genetic engineering is great. In this specific situation, people who generally trust science but are against green genetic engineering start to have doubts.
This sounds somehow contradictory, but such verdicts are made on different levels and accord- ing to different considerations,” says Peters. In the case of general trust, aspects such as earlier experiences or a respect for the authority of science – developed while at school – may play a role; in the case of situation-specific trust, doubts may arise, for example, if people are reluctant to change their existing opinions or because they don’t understand the explanation.
CREDIBILITY AT RISK
How do Jülich researchers ensure that we can trust their findings? We take a look behind the scenes. At the Institute of Energy and Climate Research – Photovoltaics (IEK-5), Jülich scientists investigate new materials for solar cells. The sub- ject of renewable energy enjoys a good reputation in society. In the Wissenschaftsbarometer survey, it achieved the best result among scientific topics, with roughly 53 % of respondents trusting science in this field and only 17 % voicing mistrust. One explanation for this may be that the topic has positive connotations: sun, wind, and water represent sustainability. Many people approve of the expansion of renewable energy sources – ac- cording to a survey conducted by the Renewable Energies Agency as many as 93 % of respond- ents. Furthermore, many research results can be measured by criteria that a layperson could also understand.
Take the efficiency of a solar cell, for example:
the higher the efficiency, the more solar energy is transformed into electricity by a photovoltaic cell. There are rules regulating how the efficiency is determined and certifications attesting that all measurements are correct. Prof. Uwe Rau, institute director at Jülich, sums it up: “This is a clear case of control taking precedence over trust.” “Just like most other scientists, we also stick to the usual scientific procedures, such as peer reviews, where researcher colleagues and international online network for the purposes of
exchanging information on new publications and projects as well as keeping up to date with the activities of colleagues in their area of expertise.
“Indeed, people often talk about trust in the sense of simple ‘like’ or ‘dislike’ verdicts. But this falls short of the mark. Trust is a much more complicated matter,” explains Peters. He makes a distinction between two different levels of trust:
general and situation-specific. “General trust is closely related to an individual’s personal atti- tude, i.e. whether or not I find someone likeable or generally think that science is trustworthy.
Situation-specific trust refers to certain expecta- tions in concrete situations, for example whether someone behaves in the way I expect them to, whether a motorist will actually stop at the zebra crossing.”
Hans Peter Peters
Our research takes time,
which we often don t
have.
Uwe Rau
11
independent experts review data and experi- ments.” Rau believes this is essential to ensuring quality and establishing credibility.
But he also sees the credibility of science at risk in some areas. “Our research takes time – which we often don’t have.” The competitive pressure between researchers is too great. This is a prob- lem also seen in the field of solar cell research, for example, which is driven by a chase for the
most spectacular results possible. As a result, the quality of research suffers, with some research- ers being led to rush their work. “A number of spectacular results from current literature are directly refutable. Today’s scientific headline must be prevented from becoming mere hot air tomor- row. This is what creates mistrust,” warns Rau.
The timescale must be made clear: “No scientist should claim that they will achieve their aim by tomorrow. In basic photovoltaic research, we’re
Names are a matter of taste. But the name of a person influences the amount of trust placed in that individual, psychologists at the University of Cologne have discovered. In an experimental game, participants
were much more trusting of other players with names that are easy to pronounce. Mentally, such names are more “fluently” processed. “The trouble-free ‘good feeling’ this creates encourages trust in our
counterpart without us really noticing it,” explains study leader Dr. Michael Zürn.
Simpler names seem more trustworthy
only damages the trust society has in research, but also – in our particular field – in renewable energy technologies as a whole,” says Rau. He therefore advocates openness and honesty.
His colleague Peters agrees: “Scientists have to create the greatest possible degree of transpar- ency. They must adhere to the justified rules of searching for the truth without allowing compe- tition or financial reasons to pressure them into shoddy research.” This also involves allowing scientists to voice uncertainties in public. Peters believes that this kind of openness forms the basis of a trusting relationship for the future.
A FALSE PICTURE
This relationship seems to be in need of strength- ening where climate change is concerned.
According to the Wissenschaftsbarometer survey, only 40 % of respondents trust the statements of climate scientists, while 28 % mistrust them.
Prof. Astrid Kiendler-Scharr, head of the Institute of Energy and Climate Research – Troposphere, believes that the complexity of the issue is one reason behind this: “It is difficult to convey our findings in a few snappy sound bites for the me- dia. In our efforts to ensure we don’t say anything incorrect to the media or public, what we actually know ends up getting lost in the mix. Instead, the uncertainties, which naturally exist, are empha- sized. But what society then often interprets is that we don’t know anything for definite.” This sows the seeds of doubt.
talking about opportunities and options which will first come to bear in ten or twenty years.” This is not always an easy concept to convey to society, he adds. “It would be wrong, however, to over- hype refutable results. In the worst case, this not The more intelligent a person is, the more likely they are to trust others. This was a finding of Dr. Noah Carl and his team at the University of Oxford, who evaluated data from an American social study. The scientists suspect that intelligent people have a better under-
standing of who to trust and who not to trust.
Uwe Rau
1 3
TWISTED TRUTHS
Prof. Martin Riese, head of the Institute of Energy and Climate Research – Stratosphere, points to the strong economic, political, and social aspects:
“Each group has its own expectations and goals, which are at times difficult to combine with each another. Various national interests are also at play, forcing the international community to make compromises, for example at climate summits.” Time and again, this leads to scientists from other disciplines presenting themselves as supposed climate experts and generally challeng- ing the notion of anthropogenic climate change.
“Facts are frequently taken out of context, over- simplified, and reproduced without reflection,”
says Riese. This often creates the impression in the media that there are conflicting views on climate change, he adds. It is difficult for those who aren’t experts to filter out which statements they can trust. “But there is consensus among ex- perts in the field that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are causing climate change in the longer term,” explains Riese. This is also shown in the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which unites the many different international research find- ings as part of a strict peer-review procedure.
“As researchers, we mustn’t be misled into want- ing to give politicians quick answers if we don’t have any. Nor must we make project proposals in which we promise from the outset much more
than could ever be achieved just to receive an ap- proval,” stresses Prof. Andreas Wahner, joint head of the Institute of Energy and Climate Research – Troposphere, who believes that some climate scientists overstep the mark. “Unfortunately, it is these scientists who are often met with a great response from the media. If their statements turn out to be false, the tenor soon becomes: if researchers can’t stick to the truth on this, then the rest isn’t true either,” criticizes Wahner.
Trust is essentially based on two things:
• our fundamental willingness to trust others
• and our assessment of how trustworthy another person or institution is.
Various factors influence both these aspects. Which factor plays the greatest role is as individually variable as people themselves and is dependent on each situation.
In general, however, the less we know, the more important trust becomes. And we are more likely to trust whenever something confirms our own values and views.
character experience environment
competent?
favourable to me?
similar attitudes?
Trust issues
Astrid Kiendler
-Scharr, Martin Ries e, Andreas Wahner ( f.l.t.r. )
As researchers, we mustn t
be misled into wanting
to give politicians quick answers.
Andreas Wahner
TAKING A CLOSER LOOK
Communications researcher Peters is also critical of the way certain scientists promote themselves in public. But the scientific community finds itself under pressure. “On the one hand, it needs to fulfil the expectations of society – including industry and politics – to prove that its findings are of significance. On the other hand, it must not become an instrument of these systems, instead maintaining its identity and focusing on its core mission: the search for truth. This is a real bal- ancing act,” he concludes.
There are other factors undermining trust in science, such as scandals over doctoral degrees in which researchers have lied or simply plagiarized their work. This is in addition to scientific outsid- ers who create uncertainty by spreading theses that are not backed up by research. For example, in 1998 when the media reported on the claim by Britain’s Andrew Wakefield that the combined measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine could cause autism, this had a significant effect on people’s willingness to be vaccinated. Although Wakefield was publicly dismissed by other researchers and ostracized by the scientific community, it created the impression of a scientific controversy. Even today, vaccination critics refer to Wakefield’s
thesis, cause parents to feel unsettled, and thus endanger the well-being of children.
“There’s also a fundamental criticism of science linked to the ‘evolution vs. creationism’ debate, for example, in other words the notion that the world was created as it is instead of having developed over a long period of time. Religious convictions and world views play an important role in this radical form of scientific criticism,”
says Peters. Germany does quite well in compari- son to other countries because such fundamental opposition to science is unable to find its way into mainstream media, unlike in the USA, he adds.
“It’s difficult to reach out to this group, as they are principally opposed to accepting rationality.”
On the whole, however, communications researcher Peters remains confident: “People’s trust in research is not in as critical a state as some media would have you believe.” In his view, science has one crucial advantage: “It is geared towards finding the truth. And truth is what soci- ety is most likely to associate with an orientation towards the greater good.” This is why society trusts science more than the political sphere or in- dustry, whose interests are focused more on profit and power. “Whereas acquired knowledge can be
earn 20 percent more
Trust pays off: those who trust earn up to 20 percent more than very mistrustful people. However, being too trusting, in other
words blind trust, cancels this effect. This was the finding of a study by scientists at the University of California and the Einaudi Institute for Economics and Finance in Rome.
People s trust in research is not in as critical a state as some
media would have you believe.
Hans Peter Peters
1 5
shared endlessly without the ‘owners’ losing any knowledge, power and money cannot be divided so simply without losses,” Peters says.
He sees the trend towards fake news and alterna- tive facts in the USA primarily as an appeal to the scientific community to reflect on its own values and to publicly express their knowledge in an en- thusiastic yet patient manner. “We must conduct sound research, not cause any scandals, and keep our ‘scientific home’ in order. This is a solid base of trust on which we can expose systematic lies and ‘alternative facts’.”
K ATJA LÜE R S
It takes just 20 seconds for us to make a decision on whether we trust a stranger or not. We don’t even need to talk with that person to make the decision. Simply observing how they converse with others is enough
to pass judgement, a study by the University of California has shown.
People with a certain gene, a specific variant of the oxytocin receptor, appear very trustworthy. Researchers think that the genetic difference may perhaps also be reflected in one’s behaviour. Test subjects with this
gene nodded more frequently, smiled more often, maintained more eye contact, and generally had a more open body language.
Making a judgement on credibility in just
20 seconds
Combining different processes to gain a better understanding of roots and their growth: Jülich plant researchers Robert Koller, Michelle Watt, Johannes Postma, and Josefine Kant (from left to right)
Picture gallery of root research in the online edition of effzett:
effzett.fz-juelich.de/en
17
Jülich scientists reveal the secrets of the hidden halves of plants: using novel methods, they investigate the growth and dynamics of living roots.
It’s brightly lit, warm, and the heavy scent of earth and mois- ture fills the greenhouse. Dr. Robert Koller lifts up a young sunflower and a sugar-beet sprout. Their roots are enclosed in a sort of picture frame that is about as thick as one finger, rectan- gular, and filled with soil. White and delicate, the tender root system stands out against the dark soil. “Look at how different- ly the roots spread,” says Koller. The sunflower’s roots, growing in a fan-shaped pattern, occupy almost the entire frame. In contrast, the slim root of the sugar beet stretches straight down. However, the researchers don’t just rely on appearances to detect the exact differences: “Our rhizotron system is on hand for that. It’s a fully automated facility that allows us to photographically analyse root architecture over long periods of time without having to dig up or destroy the roots,” explains Koller, pointing to 72 special plant containers from which grape vines are currently stretching toward the light.
At specified time intervals, the rhizotron facility transports the plants to the photo station. The images reveal how the roots and shoots develop over days or weeks and how they react to nutrient deficiency, pests, drought, or excessive amounts of water. Currently, a team headed by Dr. Fabio Fiorani together with experts from the Julius Kühn Institute, the Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, is investi- gating how rhizotron technology could be used in breeding new types of grape vines.
The researchers have already made some surprise findings. Dr.
Josefine Kant, for example, used the rhizotron to examine the growth of 41 different types of millet from all over the world in the same soil and under the same conditions. “The difference in the total root length amounted to as much as 600 %,” says the scientist. She is currently investigating what genes and environmental influences are responsible for this and how the root architecture affects the crop yield. This knowledge should help in cultivating robust plants with high yields, even under difficult climatic conditions.
“How do we feed the world in future?” This is a question posed by. Prof. Michelle Watt, director at the Institute of Bio- and Geosciences (IBG-2) – a question which researchers are ultimately driven by. “In many regions, cities cover the best soils, and we are increasingly dealing with less fertile soils and greater salinization. Drought stress and intense periods of rain are increasing due to climate change,” she emphasizes. At the same time, the world’s population is expected to increase to ten billion people by 2050. As a result, food production would have to increase by 70 % by then in order to feed everyone without using more land area. Scientists are therefore racing to find plants with higher yields that are capable of withstand- ing adverse environmental conditions.
GLIMPSE INTO THE SOIL
“In the past, it was all about the yield. Maize was bred to produce larger and heavier cobs – but no one cared about the roots,” says Watt. “But the roots are much more than just an anchor for the sprout. They have a massive influence on yield because they actively seek nutrients in the soil, they avert dan- gers such as pathogens and toxins, and they interact intensely with the bacteria in their environment.”
For example, roots grow straight down in a targeted search for water, while they grow sideways in the search for phosphorus.
Watt sees a great opportunity in the optimization of the roots through targeted breeding in order to sustainably increase the yield of crop plants. “How exactly plant roots recognize their subterranean environment, i.e. what mechanisms are respon- sible for this, has not yet been clarified,” says Watt.
Using non-invasive imaging techniques from the field of med- icine, the Jülich researchers are trying to get to the bottom of these issues. In contrast to the flat, almost two-dimensional, frames used for the rhizotron, the scientists give the roots enough room in round pots to spread in all three spatial directions. Then, they are scanned using magnetic resonance or positron emission tomography (MRT, PET), revealing both root growth and transport processes in the plants. Thus, the researchers are able to observe how plants distribute the carbon obtained via photosynthesis to their organs and where they store it. Using this method, they were able to demonstrate
Robert Koller with a young sunflower whose roots are spread out in a fan-shaped pattern.
Delicate miracles
This research is complemented by the mathematical 4D root model OpenSimRoot being developed by Dr. Johannes Postma and his team, which is also being made available to other re- searchers from all over the world. Using the model – validated by experimental data – Postma was able to show, for example, why companion planting of the “three sisters” maize, beans, and squash can lead to richer yields than individual cultivation in monocultures. “The different root architectures and growth phases seem to permit a more effective nutrient uptake if all three types of plants are cultivated together.”
Michelle Watt is excited about combining these methods: “We can observe hundreds of plants simultaneously and see what happens inside them and under the ground. The computer models help to identify interrelations that can’t be deduced from experiments or for which experiments would take too long.” But there is one thing that the researcher is particularly happy about: “We’re working with living plants in their natural environment and we no longer rely solely on shovels to dig up the secrets of their hidden halves!”
BR IG IT TE S TAHL - BUS SE
Whose roots are these?
Big and small; thick and thin; narrow and wide: plants and their roots can look very different from each other. How well do you know your roots? Test your knowledge by guessing which plants are shown here. The solution can be found on page 31.
Barley is also among the experimental plants used by the researchers. It is a shallow-rooted plant.
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What’s your research all about, Prof. Hidalgo?
“I make films that show the journey of calcium ion channels through the inside of a cell.
These are molecules which act like a gate to control how many calcium ions flow in and out of cells. Dysfunctions can cause cardiac diseases, high blood pressure, and migraines.
In order to work correctly, the channels must migrate to the correct point of the cell membrane at the right time. Using colourants, we make the channels visible and film their movements
with a fluorescence microscope. This helps us to better understand why some molecules are unable to find the right place.”
Prof. Patricia Hidalgo is department head at the Institute of Complex Systems – Cellular Biophysics.
to understand the brain
Since 2013, the Human Brain Project (HBP) has united the fields of neuroscience, computing, and IT research. The aim is to gain a better understanding of the human brain and discover new findings concerning brain diseases.
The project has tasked itself with establishing a research infra- structure that provides brain researchers from around the world with hardware and software for experiments, data analyses, and simulations. In addition, the researchers aim to use the acquired knowledge of how the brain functions to develop new computer technologies, neurorobotics, and data analysis methods.
The HBP is one of two major Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship projects to be funded by the EU since 2013. It will con- tinue to receive funding, probably until 2023, after which point it is expected to stand on its own feet and be financed by the EU member states.
Examples of three findings:
It had previously been assumed that the number of connections in the brain, through which neurons pass on stimuli and information, declines between the age of three and adulthood from about 200 trillion to roughly half of that. However, researchers from Jülich, Aachen, Düsseldorf, Jerusalem, and Stanford discovered by means of magnetic resonance tomography and microscopic investigations that the nervous tissue in certain regions of the brain continues to grow even after the age of three. They compared the brains of children between the ages of five and twelve with the brains of adults, study- ing a specific region of the temporal lobe. The researchers only observed increases in nervous tissue in regions which are activated during the recognition of faces, but not in adjacent regions which are involved in identifying places. Indeed, adults can remember faces much better than places, whereas there are hardly any such differences in children.
Brain grows for longer than thought
21
Obtaining a brain model faster Better evaluation of nerve fibre images
Researchers aim to use computer models to understand the inter- actions between the capabilities of the brain and the design of the neural network. Usually, they create their model from data that reveal information about the arrangement of neurons in the respec- tive regions of the brain. However, such data, which can be acquired from microscopic investigations, are never complete due to the huge number of neurons and their connections. Using the obtained model, the scientists then simulate the brain activities on supercomputers.
They compare the results with experimentally measured activity data to determine how realistic the model is. If there are any deviations, the scientists alter the mathematical parameters based on intuition or experience. This is an arduous process with an uncertain outcome. A team of researchers from Jülich and Aachen used a statistical physics method to successfully incorporate the activity data into the model development process right from the start. This means that subsequent adjustment measures are no longer necessary. The development of new models which better reflect reality than current models is thus starting to gather speed.
TE X T S: FR ANK FR IC K
Brain researchers use various methods to investigate how neurons in the brain are connected to each other to pass on information. For example, diffusion magnetic resonance imaging provides images of the course of nerve fibres in the human brain – but only with an accuracy of up to two millimetres. Three-dimensional polarized light imaging is much more accurate with a resolution of several thousandths of a millimetre, but this requires extremely thin sections of the brain. Scientists from Jülich, Aachen, and Düsseldorf have now developed a mathematical algorithm which enables image information from both methods to be directly compared. The pathways of nerve fibres can thus be determined more precisely. Furthermore, the high-resolution data of the nerve fibres of an entire brain can now also be captured on supercomputers at the Jülich Supercomputing Centre.
THE HUMAN BRAIN PROJECT IN FIGURES countries involved 24
in the project
research establishments 117
cooperating over the project
686 publications so far
1 billion
euros to be invested in the project until 2023
More information: www.humanbrainproject.eu
Prof. Katrin Amunts is director at the Jülich Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine,
director of the C. and O. Vogt Institute of Brain Research at Düsseldorf University
Hospital, and Vice-Chair of the German Ethics Council.
You’ve taken up the position of Scientific Research Director of the Human Brain Project (HBP). What does the HBP mean to you?
The objectives of the Human Brain Project are perfectly in line with what I would like to achieve as a researcher. I want to understand how the various levels of organization in the brain – molecules, cells, neural circuits, and large networks – interact and thus enable the various functions of the brain. This is the key to answering fundamental questions which I have long been engaged with: How is something like language created? How does consciousness evolve? What is it that makes us human? The task of understanding how the brain functions goes way beyond the capabilities of an institute, a research centre, or even a country. You need to be able to combine the knowledge of medical scientists, biolo- gists, psychologists, IT specialists, and scientists from other disciplines. And you also need hardware and software for experiments, data analyses, and simulations that are acces- sible to everyone. I’d like to help ensure the HBP partners are working towards this common goal.
Have you had any notable successes so far? The HBP has been running for over three years now.
Yes, we have. Collaboration through the HBP has resulted in hundreds of scientific publications, many of which in leading journals. In addition, the project has given rise to intensive scientific exchange and comprehensive activities. There are so many workshops and conferences taking place that I am not even close to being able to participate in all of the ones that interest me. In April 2016, we set up the initial versions of the six infrastructure platforms of the HBP and are working hard to ensure that users get the best use out of them. This helps the HBP to gather additional momentum.
How would you describe these platforms?
There are currently six platforms, each providing tools for collaborative research. They cover computing power and programmes which are required for the evaluation of experiments and for simulations. One such example is the Neuroinformatics Platform, which provides scientists and doctors from around the world with access to various data and a digital atlas of the human brain. It consists of a multitude of superimposed maps, in which various aspects of brain organi- zation can be analysed. The scientists use the obtained data to make calculations and compare them with their own findings.
THE INTE RVIE W WAS C ONDUC TE D BY FR ANK FR IC K
2 3
Jülich researchers have developed a membrane which can separate the energy carrier hydrogen from a gas mixture particularly efficiently due to
its microscopic structure.
Olivier Guillon is holding what looks like an olive-green button, about as big as a coin, between his thumb and index finger. But looks can be deceiving. He’s actually holding a membrane made of high-performance ce- ramic material. This membrane could make it easier to produce hydrogen in future. “Hydro- gen is a valuable energy carrier. And it plays a key role in the production of base chemicals for industry,” explains Guillon, a materials scientist at Jülich’s Institute of Energy and Climate Research (IEK-1).
Biogas, for instance, is a potential source for the coveted element. Hot water vapour can release the chemically bound hydrogen from it. The challenge with this industrial process is to separate hydrogen from the reaction mixture. This is where the membrane comes
into play: It acts like a doorman, only allow- ing hydrogen to pass while the remaining gases are held back. The reason this works is because only the hydrogen at the membrane surface decomposes into charged parti- cles: electrons and protons. These particles migrate through the thin ceramic layer to combine and again form the gas on the other side of the membrane.
However, the speed of this diffusion process has so far left much to be desired. This is due to the fact that although the materials transmit the positive protons well, this is not the case with the negative electrons.
The team headed by Mariya E. Ivanova (also IEK-1) has therefore developed a membrane consisting of two components, which is thus
able to open separate doors for the different particles. “Both components form networks at microscopic level which are able to pene- trate each other. The protons migrate via one network; the electrons via the other. This enabled us to considerably increase the flow of hydrogen,” the researcher says.
The customized membranes have additional useful properties for gas transformations in industry: they can withstand temperatures up to several hundred degrees Celsius and are resistant to most chemicals.
ARNDT RE UNING
H2
H2O
membrane CH4
H2
H+ H+
e
-e
-Prof. Olivier Guillon is director of the Institute of Energy and Climate Research – Materials Synthesis and Processing.
Decomposition and migration
The membrane does not allow gases such as water vapour (H20) and methane (CH4) to pass. Only hydrogen (H2) is allowed through. It decomposes at the surface of the mem
brane into protons (H+) and electrons (e). These then migrate separately through the membrane before combining to form hydrogen again on the other side.
Progress
through
separation
magnetic properties of a material, these elementary mag- nets either line up in a purely incidental manner or point in a common direction. For a long time, it was an unknown fact that they can also form tiny magnetic vortices. Skyrmions are named after British researcher Tony Skyrme, who investigated their mathematical properties in theoretical models for the first time almost 60 years ago. It was only a few years ago that researchers succeeded in creating and observing such vortices.
Jülich scientists, together with colleagues from Kiel and Hamburg, were among the first to produce the tiny vortices at temperatures of minus 245 degrees Celsius at the interface between iron and iridium.
the nanoworld
The term “skyrmions” might sound like the name of a wild group of Middle Eastern horse riders, but this is way off the mark. Skyrmions are not a bunch of big guys on fast horses, but instead are tiny magnetic vortices on which the
hopes of memory modules for a new generation of computers are pinned.
Vortices occur very frequently in nature. They are often relatively long-lived phenomena: low-pressure areas begin as hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico weeks before they reach Europe. Wingtip vortices left in the trail of aircraft, also re- ferred to as wake turbulence, continue to swirl even minutes after take-off. And what is likely the largest vortex in the solar system – the Giant Red Spot on Jupiter – has existed for at least 350 years.
Skyrmions are a very special form of vortices – magnetic vortices of just a few nanometres in size on the atomic level. In principle, atoms act like tiny bar magnets. Depending on the
2 5
“The discovery of skyrmions came just in time to open up a path for the future of spin electronics (spintronics). Conven- tional electron-based micro- and nanoelectronics will reach their limits of miniaturization in a few years,” says Prof. Stefan Blügel, director at the Peter Grünberg Institute and the Insti- tute for Advanced Simulation (PGI-1/IAS-1). This will come to pass when conductors in microchips are only a few atoms wide. Skyrmions, with diameters of 10 to 100 nanometres, could enable even smaller components.
MINIMAL ENERGY REQUIRED
What is particularly encouraging for future applications is that skyrmions behave like small individual particles. The mag- netic vortex, which is actually only a special alignment of the elementary magnets in the material, moves like a particle of matter,” Blügel explains. However, as matter doesn’t move, but instead only the magnetization is shifted, this transport occurs with minimal energy expenditure. And there is yet another advantage, according to Blügel: “Skyrmions are perpetually stable – ten years are no problem at all.”
These three key properties of magnetic vortices – their low spatial expansion, their durability, and their simple transport – make them a very interesting prospect for future computer components, primarily for use as data storage. At a later stage, it may also be possible to perform calculations directly using skyrmions.
Blügel and his colleagues are working together with partners from different countries to turn this vision into reality. The objective of their calculations and experiments is to find a ma- terial which, even at room temperature, can make skyrmions, remain stable, and be controlled. Promising candidates are multilayer materials comprising heavy elements such as plat- inum in combination with magnetic metals iron and cobalt.
Skyrmions occur at the interfaces between the different layers.
However, skyrmions at room temperature, such as those produced last year for the first time by a group headed by French Nobel Laureate Prof. Albert Fert, which is cooper- ating with Forschungszentrum Jülich, are still relatively large at roughly 50 nanometres in size. But Blügel remains optimistic: “I believe we will be able to make them ten times smaller.” This would blow the door wide open to miniatur- ized spintronics.
JE NS KUBE
Punched tape for the 21st century
Skyrmions, the stable nanovortices which can be shifted with little effort, could form the foundation of future storage technologies. The storage technology in question is comparable with traditional punched tape from the early days of information technology: a sequence of skyrmions and a vortexfree surface corresponds with a sequence of ones and zeros – just as with traditional punched tape where a hole equals one and no hole equals zero. While punched tape has to be run along a light barrier using mechanical methods, a low electric voltage is enough to shift the skyrmions and thus gradually move them towards a read head. The fundamentals of such a reading unit has already been developed at Jülich.
“Skyrmions are perpetually stable – ten years
are no problem at all.”
Skyrmion: the tiny vortex consists of atoms which behave like small bar magnets. Within the vortex, the magnetization changes direction once. While the outermost (red) cones are parallel to an external magnetic field (black arrow), the inner atoms (dark blue cones) point in the opposite direction.
Consequences for the Mediterranean region ...
… due to high water consumption of the agricultural industry:
• groundwater level sinking
• water quality declining
• seawater intrusion into groundwater in coastal regions
… due to climate change:
• longer periods of drought
• drought increases risk of forest fires
• landslips and flooding of rivers as a result of torrential rain
Water shortage in
Europe’s vegetable patch
Studies warn of increasing drought in the Mediterranean region due to climate change. This will make it more difficult for fruit and vegetable
growers to water their fields. Environmental measurements are expected to help develop adaptation strategies.
Picassent test area
Investigation area
Citrus field near Picassent and Olocau subcatchment near Carraixet, both near Valencia
Special aspect
The region is one of the main growing regions for oranges, clementines, and lemons, but has suffered from prolonged droughts and severe flash floods
Research on
• automation of irrigation systems
• reduction of irrigation amounts by up to 20 %
• exchange of water between the atmosphere and soil in a pine forest
• generation of flash floods
Picassent SPAIN
The holiday paradise that is the Mediterranean is also viewed as the fruit and vegetable garden of Europe – home to green- houses and plantations as big as several football pitches. How- ever, in some regions, irrigation uses up more water per year than is naturally available. Researchers believe this situation is set to worsen as a result of climate change. The Mediterrane- an countries need to adapt and develop suitable strategies, in part to ensure the agricultural industry remains an important source of income in the long term.
In order to do so, it is important to understand as precisely as possible how the local climate is set to develop. For long- term predictions, however, there is a lack of specific data concerning precipitation, water discharge, and soil moisture, for instance. Regional observation platforms are now set to change this. Jülich researchers from the Institute of Bio- and Geosciences (IBG-3) are establishing such platforms together with colleagues in Italy, Greece, and Spain. “We are using our experience from the TERENO project, which has been
investigating the regional consequences of climate change in Germany through a comparable network since 2008,” says Jülich scientist Dr. Heye Bogena. The cooperation with the Mediterranean countries is being funded via the Helmholtz initiative ACROSS.
C HR IS TIAN HOHLFE LD
Thirsty nutrition
55.9 trillion
litres of water are consumed per year by the agricultural sector in
Europe’s Mediterranean countries.
That’s roughly twice as much as the agricultural sector in the rest of
Europe combined.
How many litres of water are consumed to produce one kilogram of various fruit and vegetables? (All figures given are global average values)
Source: Water Footprint Network
Alento catchment area
Investigation area
The catchment area of the Alento river, south of Naples Special aspect
Piana della Rocca drinking water dam Research on
• environmental processes in fields, plantations, and natural forests
• impact of the agricultural industry on the dam’s nitrate levels
• risks associated with an increase in forest fires
Agia region
Investigation area
The basin of the river Peneiós near the village of Agia in Thessaly Special aspect
• the Plain of Thessaly is one of the most productive agricultural regions in Greece
• the macchia, an evergreen shrub typical of the region, consumes a large portion of the natural water resources
Research on
• water consumption of macchia
• calculation of sustainably utilizable groundwater amounts
• prediction of irrigation requirements for the agricultural sector Alento
Agia ITALY
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
GREECE
1,222
910 822 560
237 287 131 214
27
353
3,015
Trees influence cloud formation
Stressed plants can alter the formation of clouds. One cause of stress is climate change.
In order for clouds to form, tiny particles need to be flying around in the atmosphere.
Water vapour condenses on these particles, known as aerosol particles, to form clouds.
Dust particles, soot, and pollen count among these particles. But trees can also influence cloud formation. They emit organic com- pounds such as hydrocarbons into the air, from which organic aerosol particles can also be formed.
A team of scientists headed by Dr. Defeng Zhao and Dr. Thomas Mentel from the Insti- tute of Energy and Climate Research (IEK-8) has investigated whether the composition of these aerosol particles changes when trees are placed under stress – for example as a result of pest infestation or heatwaves and drought brought on by climate change. The scientists exposed young trees to these stress
situations in a special plant chamber. The researchers then channelled a portion of the air from the chamber into a reactor, where various aerosol particles formed in a process involving the organic compounds emitted by the trees. Mentel and his colleagues deter- mined their size and composition as well as how suitable they are for cloud formation.
The results showed that stress caused by pests altered the composition of the aerosol particles, which also became bigger. To put
it simply, this enables whiter clouds to form which have a stronger cooling effect on the climate than grey clouds.
Drought stress, in contrast, did not alter the composition of the particles, but they did become smaller. The clouds are therefore greyer and have less of a cooling effect than white clouds. Rain falls more easily from grey clouds, however. “Climate change is chang- ing the lives of trees and, therefore, also the formation of aerosol particles. We now need to clarify in field tests whether this is also occurring on a large scale above the Earth’s forests,” says Thomas Mentel.
JO C HE N S TE INE R
Stress test: young trees in the plant chamber
Trees
Heatwaves and drought reduce the amount of water resources, for example; this stresses the trees.
Pest infestation places the trees under stress.
Organic compounds
Drought stress and heat stress lower the amount of organic compounds emitted by the trees and from which aerosol particles form.
Stress caused by pests alters the organic compounds emitted by the trees.
Aerosol particles
The composition remains the same, but the particles become smaller.
The composition alters, while the particles also become bigger.
29
Silicon solar cells
Efficiency: up to 26.5 % Lifetime: more than 30 years Advantages: high longterm stability Disadvantages: Energy and chemical
intensive production
Transparent and flexible
Organic solar cells, also known as plastic solar cells, have huge potential. The only problem:
their efficiency is still too low.
New materials could change this.
Sweat drips down after running the first few kilometres. The runner glances at the fitness watch but no statistics are on display.
The battery is empty – yet again. In future, a flexible, transparent solar panel on the watch could ensure the battery is always operation- al. Organic solar cells would make this possi- ble. They consist of hydrocarbon compounds – plastics that are printed as ultrathin layers on various substrates.
“These layers are flexible, light, and trans- parent. Although unlikely to replace silicon cells on roofs, they do open up completely new opportunities due to their properties,”
explains Prof. Thomas Kirchartz, who heads the Organic and Hybrid Solar Cells group at the Institute of Energy and Climate Research (IEK-5). These solar cells could be integrat- ed into window panes and glass facades in “invisible” solar installations. In addition, they are almost tailor-made for charging stations integrated into clothing. Further research is needed until this stage is reached, however. At present, the cells age quickly and their efficiency is still a long way off that of silicon cells.
EFFICIENCY INCREASED
Together with an international team of sci- entists, Jülich researchers have now helped organic solar cells to take a step forward:
“We were able to show that new material combinations offer a lot of potential. They absorb light better, are more stable, and more cost-efficient to produce than materials currently used,” says Dr. Derya Baran, who is responsible for these investigations.
Organic solar cells comprise two compo- nents: a molecule that absorbs light and a molecule that transports the free electrons produced. This “transport” molecule usu- ally consists of fullerenes – hollow foot- ball-shaped molecules made up of 60 or 70 carbon atoms. However, they have several crucial disadvantages: their production involves a high consumption of energy, they do not themselves absorb any light, and they also have an adverse effect on the stability of solar cells. The team of researchers therefore replaced the fullerenes with two other small molecules. The new molecules transport the electrons at a similarly good level to the fullerenes. They also absorb light very strongly. “We were therefore able to increase the efficiency to up to 11 %, whereas compa- rable fullerene-containing cells achieve an efficiency of about 10 %,” says Baran. The path to higher efficiencies thus appears to lie ahead.
JANINE VAN AC KE RE N
Organic solar cells
Efficiency: up to 13.2 % Lifetime: up to several years
(longterm tests still largely ongoing) Advantages: flexible, light, and transparent; production
is costeffective and environmentally friendly Disadvantages: low efficiency as yet and low longterm
stability
Why there?
The Jülich coordinator of the Cassava - store project, Dr. Tobias Wojciechowski, regularly works for a few weeks in Thailand.
What are you currently working on at the RFCRC?
We are establishing a technique that can be used to thoroughly investigate the roots of cassava plants. Software is able to gather important data describing the root system from a video recording. Cassava is an im- portant crop from which starch is produced for foodstuffs as well as bioethanol fuel.
How many plants will you investigate using this method over the two-year duration of the project?
In total, 36,000. We have identified 600 genotypes, that is to say plants with differ- ent genetic makeups. We will investigate these plants at various stages of growth.
And what is the objective?
We are looking to identify the genes responsible for the faster formation of storage roots in some varieties. The aim is to develop cassava varieties that produce their yield in the shortest possible time.
tonnes per hectare: 70
the amount of cassava expected to be harvested in future.
This would triple the current average harvest.
The location
Two-hour drive from Bangkok The RFCRC site, which is roughly one square kilometre in size, is located in Rayong Province, eastern Thailand. It is about 170 kilometres away from the Thai capital Bangkok.
Wealthy province
According to official statistics, the per capita income in Rayong Province is the highest in Thailand at over € 25,000.
The petrochemistry and mining in- dustries contribute significantly to the economic strength of the province.
Tourist island
Promoted as a paradise-like tropical island, Ko Samet is situated only about 40 kilometres away from the RFCRC. The island is no tranquil paradise, however.
Many Europeans, Chinese, and Russians travel to the island, as do many Thais from Bangkok and the surrounding areas for short stays.
Jülich’s campus measures 2.2 km2. But Jülich scientists are active beyond the campus – for example
at the Rayong Field Crops Research Center (RFCRC)
in Thailand.
2.2 plus
Thailand is the second-biggest cassava producer in the world. The crop is cultivated across almost 1.4 million hectares, an area nearly as big as Schleswig-Holstein.
31
THUMBS UP
In April, researchers took to the streets in many cities in Germany and throughout the world to make a stand for science (image: Berlin).
The campaign sought to highlight the societal value of scientific findings and underline the risks
associated with the growing wave of populism and “alternative facts”. Jülich employees also took part – either on the streets or by making statements
on the Jülich campus blog Zweikommazwei.
– BLO G S . F Z- JUE LIC H . DE/ Z WE IKOMMA Z WE I/ – SE AR C H TE RM: MAR C H F OR S C IE NC E
MARCH FOR SCIENCE
Jülich on the march
Filming an astronaut in free fall is not so difficult with a little imagination. A fall from
a great height can be easily simulated using a toy figure and a simple structure. There’s also
no need for high-speed cameras to capture the falling hero in slow motion. The tutorial “Flash- motion – How to speed up your camera” reveals
how this is possible. On the website, it explains how to capture time-lapse images for scientific experiments without using expensive equipment.
– TUTOR IAL . FSP - FE L . DE/FL ASHMOTION –
WEB TUTORIAL
Time-lapse experiments
At one time or another, we’ve perhaps all wanted to ask questions such as “If we can clone extinct species, should
we?” or “Can I eat genetically modified plants?” It’s great when you are able to pose such questions to their respective communities on social networks like Twitter.
And even better when a renowned science communicator is on hand to provide the answers. On the YouTube chan-
nel of WIRED magazine, US TV presenter and author Bill Nye, known for his TV show Bill Nye the Science Guy, tackles a series of questions posed on Twitter and
answers them with typical humour.
– W W W.YOUTUBE .C OM – SE AR C H TE RM: BILL N Y E ANSWE R S S C IE NC E
QUE S TIONS FR OM T WIT TE R
SCIENCE SUPPORT
Science questions on Twitter
1 – cassava; 2 – maize; 3 – bean;
4 – barley; 5 – potato; 6 – sugar beet
Answers to roots quiz (page 18)
IN A TWEET
Dr. Dieter Klemp
and his colleagues in the field of tropospheric research developed the new mobile measuring laboratory and fixed it inside a small truck. While travelling, the numerous devices measure the gase
ous trace substances and particles in the air. This facilitates the precise analysis of how high the level of pollution is and what its causes are.
Particulate matter detective: Jülich
researchers are able to measure the level of pollution in cities more accurately using the new MobiLab laboratory.
www.fz-juelich.de/mobilab
