Technology as Cultural Process

Working Paper

TECHNOLOGY AS CULTURAL PROCESS

B r i a n Wynne

November 1 9 8 3 WP-83-118

International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis

A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria

NOT FOR QUOTATION

WITHOUT PERMISSION

O F THE AUTHOR

TECHNOLOGY AS CULTURAL PROCESS

B r i a n Wynne

November 1 9 8 3 WP-83-118

P a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n : N a t u r e , C u l t u r e , T e c h n o l o g y , S t o c k h o l m , Sweden, S e p t e m b e r 1 2 - 1 4 , 1 9 8 3

W o r k i n g P a p e r s a r e i n t e r i m r e p o r t s on work o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r A p p l i e d S y s t e m s A n a l y s i s and have r e c e i v e d o n l y l i m i t e d r e v i e w . V i e w s o r o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d h e r e i n do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e - s e n t t h o s e o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o r o f i t s N a t i o n a l Member O r g a n i z a t i o n s .

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS A-2361 L a x e n b u r g , A u s t r i a

TECHNOLOGY AS CULTURAL PROCESS

INDEX

I. INTRODUCTION

11. TOWARDS POLITICAL CULTURES

111. THE AXIS OF INSTABILITY

IV. TECHNOLOGICAL ANIMISM

V. TECHNOLOGICAL ANIMISM AND SOCIAL ACTIVATION

VI

.

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

Page 1

I . I N T R O D U C T I O N

J u s t a s t h e r e a r e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e way n a t u r e i s d e f i n e d , s o t o o i n t h e way "technology" i s d e f i n e d . Although t h e r e i s an a p p a r e n t l y i r r e s i s t i b l e urge t o use terms l i k e N a t u r e , C u l t u r e and Technology a s i f t h e y were u n i t a r y e n t i t i e s (and

perhaps t h a t i s always t h e f a t e of p o t e n t s o c i a l s y m b o l s ) , p u b l i c p o l i c y r e f l e c t i o n i s b e t t e r s e r v e d by examining t h e o r i g i n s and i m p l i c a t i o n s of r e c e i v e d d e f i n i t i o n s and t h e i r " i n t e r f a c e s " .

There h a s been a l o n g t r a d i t i o n of r e s e a r c h on t h e s o c i a l n e g o t i a t i o n of n a t u r e and i t s complex r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h c u l t u r e

[I]. What Thompson r e f e r s t o a s an e t e r n a l c i r c l e , of t h e t h e c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of n a t u r e and t h e n a t u r a l d e s t r u c t i o n of c u l t u r e [ 2 ]

,

l e a d s t o t h e a p p a r e n t conundrum of t h e c u l t u r a l

d e s t r u c t i o n ( v i a n a t u r e ) of c u l t u r e . The conundrum o n l y a p p e a r s , however, i f w e g i v e t h e f l o o r t o t h e r e c e i v e d approach t o culture^', which i s t o s e e it a s a homogenous, m o n o l i t h i c whole--Western

C u l t u r e , I s l a m i c C u l t u r e , T r a d i t i o n a l C u l t u r e . , e t c . Adopting a more modest n o t i o n of c u l t u r e we can a t t e n d t o t h e c o n t e n d i n g d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s w i t h i n (and e l e m e n t s of c r o s s - " C u l t u r a l " i d e n t i t y between) such a b s t r a c t m o n o l i t h s , and l i n k t h e s e t o r e a l b e i n g s , i n s t i t u t i o n s and i s s u e s r a t h e r t h a n moral i d e a l s , W e can see d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s , t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c customs, b e l i e f s y s t e m s , s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s , a s more o r l e s s d i s c r e e t l o c a l c u l t u r e s , m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r own i d e n t i t y and e x i s t e n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s , w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r m e l t i n g p o t . C u l t u r e s a r e a t t h e same t i m e d e s t r o y e d a s a c t i v e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t s and

y e t imrnortalised by b e i n g n n a t u r a l i s e d v by t h e i r p r o p o n e n t s .

The d i s t i n c t i v e e s s e n c e of " C u l t u r e v a s a framework of a n a l y s i s i s t h e i n t e g r a t e d wholeness of c o g n i t i v e and m a t e r i a l s o c i a l

dimensions of e x i s t e n c e . Nature i s worked on and m a n i p u l a t e d t h r o u g h i d e a s o f n a t u r e , s o c i e t y and t e c h n o l o g y which c o r r e s p o n d w i t h b a s i c p a t t e r n s of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h a t " C u l t u r e " . T h i s i s n o t a t a l l an a p p r o a c h a n t a g o n i s t i c t o c o n v e n t i o n a l n o t i o n s of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , i n s t i t u t i o n s , power and economic r e l a t i o n s : r a t h e r i t may e n l a r g e o u r v i s i o n of how s u c h m a t e r i a l s o c i a l r e a l i t i e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d o r changed [ 3 ] .

I n t h i s p a p e r I want t o e x p l o r e t h e n o t i o n of t e c h n o l o g y a s c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s i n t h i s s e n s e , of embodying a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e t of c u l t u r e s , e a c h of which may be e s s e n t i a l t o t h e t e c h n o l o g y , b u t between which r e l a t i o n s of power, communication and c o o r d i n a t i o n may be p r o b l e m a t i c . I t c o u l d w e l l be a s k e d , why u s e t h e term

c u l t u r a l r a t h e r t h a n s o c i a l , and I have i n d e e d e l s e w h e r e t r i e d t o s u g g e s t t h e p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e of s e e i n g t e c h n o l o g y a s s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n [ 4 ] . However, w i t h o u t w i s h i n g t o deny t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l , economic and p h y s i c a l e l e m e n t s of t e c h n o l o g y , I am t r y i n g h e r e t o emphasize t h e a s s o c i a t e d a t t i t u d e s , images and b e l i e f s y s t e m s which l e g i t i m a t e t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s of t e c h n o l o g y . The u l t i m a t e g o a l i s t o shed a l i t t l e l i g h t on t h e complex, b r i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a l i e n a t e d " a c c e p t a n c e "

and a c t i v e a t t e m p t e d i n v o l v e m e n t ( o f t e n v i a p r o t e s t of some form) i n t h e s o c i a l d i r e c t i o n of t e c h n o l o g y . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a key node i n t h e dynamics of s o c i a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l change and p e r h a p s i n t h e h i s t o r i c p r o j e c t t o reembed t e c h n o l o g y I n more d e m o c r a t i c forms of c o n t r o l , b u t i t i s a t t h e same t i m e o b s c u r e and h i g h l y u n s t a b l e . I t i s worth s t u d y i n g by methods l e s s

regimented t h a n o r t h o d o x a t t i t u d e s u r v e y s c a n o f f e r [ 5 ] .

Although t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between Technology and C u l t u r e have l o n g been a t o p i c o f i n q u i r y [ 6 1 , t h e n o t i o n of Technology

a s ( d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ) C u l t u r e h a s been o f f a r l e s s c o n c e r n . S u g g e s t i v e b u t n e g l e c t e d work a d e c a d e ago by Edge on some c u l t u r a l

i m p l i c a t i o n s ( e . g . t h e " d e h u m a n i s a t i o n " q u e s t i o n ) o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l metaphor a c t s a s a s p r i n g b o a r d f o r my e x p l o r a t i o n s [ 7 ] . I w i l l a t t e m p t t o r e l a t e some o f h i s i n s i g h t s t o r e c e n t work i n c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y a s d e v e l o p e d t o a d d r e s s some modern p o l i c y i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g t e c h n o l o g y [ 8 I

.

F i r s t , however, I w i l l o u t l i n e a schema f o r t r e a t i n g c u l t u r e more r e a l i s t i c a l l y , a s a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d c o n t e x t of competing

s o c i a l - c o g n i t i v e - m e t a p h y s i c a l s t y l e s .

11. TOWARDS P O L I T I C A L CULTURES

S e v e r a l c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Mary Douglas have d e v e l o p e d a n e s s e n t i a l l y 2-dimensional framework of s o c i o -

c u l t u r a l a t r i b u t e s by which t o d e f i n e b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s and c o m p a r i s o n s between c u l t u r e s . T h i s " g r i d - g r o u p " c o m p a r a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s y s t e m may b e a p p l i c a b l e a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s of a g g r e g a t i o n from " n a t i o n a l " c u l t u r e s t o i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n sub- c u l t u r e s . I t h a s been w e l l a r t i c u l a t e d e l s e w h e r e [ 9 1 , s o t h a t o n l y a b r i e f o u t l i n e i s needed h e r e . My aim i s o n l y t o u s e t h e frame- work a s a way o f s e e i n g i n c o n t e x t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a s s i v i s m and a c t i v e p r o t e s t . T h i s may i n p a s s i n g go a l i t t l e way t o a d d i n g some needed s o c i a l dynamics t o t h e framework i t s e l f , b u t t h a t i s n o t my main o b j e c t i v e h e r e .

The a p p r o a c h s t a r t s from t h e n o t u n u s u a l p r e m i s e t h a t i d e a s o f n a t u r e h e l d by g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s c o r r e s p o n d w i t h b a s i c m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s c r u c i a l t o t h a t g r o u p ' s s e l f - m a i n t e n a n c e ,

E g a l i t a r i a n g r o u p s t e n d t o " n a t u r a l i s e f ' and t h u s m a i n t a i n moral e q u a l i t y by s e e i n g b i o l o g i c a l e q u a l i t y i n n a t u r e . H i e r a r c h i c a l

g r o u p s would t e n d t o r e f l e c t t h e i r s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y i n p e r c e p t i o n s o f h i e r a r c h i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n n a t u r e . T h i s i s s t a n d a r d f a r e .

C u l t u r a l f i l t e r s s h a p e t h e p e r e c p t i o n o f n a t u r e i n s y s t e m a t i c ways, b l o c k i n g i n c o n s i s t e n t d a t a and h i g h l i g h t i n g c o n f i r m a t o r y d a t a . These f i l t e r s a r e n o t merely e n c r u s t e d h a b i t s l e a r n e d by r o t e and m i n d l e s s l y e n a c t e d from one g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e n e x t ; t h e y a r e t h e p r o d u c t o f a c t i v e scheming t o m a i n t a i n a g i v e n c u l t u r a l s t y l e o r b i a s i n c o n t e n t i o n w i t h c o m p e t i t o r s . The t h e o r y o f t h e c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y s c h o o l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Mary Douglas i s t h a t from a l l s o c i a l c o n t e x t s t h e r e a r e o n l y a few f u n d a m e n t a l t y p e s which such c u l t u r a l b i a s e s c a n t a k e . These c a n be mapped on o r t h o g o n a l a x e s , o f " g r i d " and " g r o u p " .

H i g h - g r i d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v e a h i g h l e v e l o f e x t e r n a l s o c i a l p r e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e ' ) i n d i v i d u a l 1 s l 1 * r o l e . T h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no autonomy, and t h e a c t o r ' s e x p e r i e n c e i s a s a m a n i p u l a t e d p e r i p h e r y t o someone e l s e ' s c e n t r e . C o n v e r s e l y l o w - ( o r n e g a t i v e - ) g r i d r e l a t i o n i n v o l v e h i g h autonomy and anomie, and s t r o n g

p r e s c r i b i n g t o w a r d s o t h e r s .

High-group r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v e s t r o n g i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o sharply-bounded g r o u p s . T h i s s o c i a l d e m a r c a t i o n between i n s i d e and o u t s i d e i s t h e key p r o p e r t y . " N e g a t i v e group" would

mean a c t i v e r e j e c t i o n o f g r o u p b o u n d a r i e s .

I t i s t h e o r t h o g o n a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s which p r o v i d e e m p i r i c a l l y r e c o g n i z a b l e s o c i a l g r o u p s , i n d i v i d u a l s and o r g a n i s a t i o n s . Thompson h a s d e s c r i b e d them a s f o l l o w s :

"The group and g r i d a x e s have b o t h p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e d i m e n s i o n s . S i n c e g r o u p and g r i d c a n o n l y be measured on o r d i n a l s c a l e s , t h e r e a r e o n l y f i v e d i s t i n c t i o n s t o b e made w i t h i n t h i s s o c i a l c o n t e x t space--one a t t h e o r i g i n

and o n e i n e a c h o f t h e f o u r q u a d r a n t s . I n e a c h o f t h e s e d i s t i n c t s o c i a l c o n t e x t s w e f i n d a d i s t i n c t s o c i a l t y p e : t h e h e r m i t , f r e e from c o e r c i v e i n v o l v e m e n t i n b o t h group-

*More c o r r e c t l y , t h e s o c i a l u n i t , which may b e a group o r i n d i v i d u a l

formation and personal network-building; at the bottom left, t h e entrepreneur, spurning group involvement and central to a large personal network; at the top left, t h e ineffectual, excluded from social groups and peripheral to the personal networks of others; at top right, the hierarchist, strongly grouped and willingly subject to all the prescriptions that serve to maintain the ranked separation of his group from all the others within the group hierarchy; and at bottom right, the sectist, strongly grouped but rejecting hierarchy and all the prescriptions that are its inevitable accompani- ment.

I trace these five stabilizable conjunctions of social context and cultural bias back to three distinctive kinds of organisation: the ego-focused network, the hierarchy- nested group, and the bounded egalitarian group. I further argue that this typology of organisations is exhaustive-- that these are the only kinds of organisation that are socially viable."

This scheme is represented in Figure 1 , where illustrative labels are given for the five basic social types, their typical cultural biases, moral justifications and ideas of nature.

If we apply this scheme to ideas of technology we can see corresponding patterns. A high grid view would emphasize highly structured forms, and high group would emphasize strongly bounded areas of technical control or consequences, i.e. strong boundaries of responsibility. Thus a combination of high grid and high group would yield a sense of well-ordered technical action with in-

principle clearcut boundaries of consequences. If these are not actually clearcut then better forecasting and assessment can

achieve this. Hence there is a sustained concentration bordering on the obsess~onal, with refined techniques for technological forecasting, risk management and technology assessment. High grid-low group, on the other hand, would yield an analogous

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F i g u r e 1 , The GRID-Group T y p o l g y o f C u l t u r a l S t y l e s (Thompson, 1 9 8 3 ) : S O C I A L TYPES, cultwlal b i a s e s , ' j u s t i f i c a t i o n s ' and

IDEAS OF NATURE.

sense of determinism in the direction of technology but an in- accessible determinism, out of reach of recognizable, organised human perception and management. Technology is well gridded, but outwith any recognizable moral community (group) because there is no strong group experience to frame that sense.

Low grid-low group, on the other hand, would entail a similar sense of unpredictability to the low group top left of Figure 1 , but this time an unpredictability that was accessible, thus open to exploitation--sometimes this would pay off, other times not.

Anticipation would be of limited value; it would be more a case of "ride the tiger" than manage in the conventional sense of cross-impact matrices, nth order consequence probabilities, etc.

Finally, the high group, low grid style would emphasize strong boundaries of responsibility, discontinuous consequence profiles

(apocalyptic tendencies)

,

and a low sense of external determination;

that is a high moral responsibility to direct technology, but in more collectivist ways. Hence there would be an emphasis upon normative management, but more via collectivist styles of

political organisation ("appropriate technology") than by

conventional hierarchical forms of management. From this bias, technologies would tend to be evaluated according to perceived intrinsic moral qualities.

One can see how these ideas of technology tend to correspond with ideas of nature, Indeed within each cultural style the ideas of nature and technology interpenetrate and reinforce one-another.

There is no clear boundary between nature and technology: indeed our publically certified knowledge of nature, namely science, is nowadays certified only via technology, i.e. as knowledge leading to greater technical control, and nothing else. Truth and

manipulation have become culturally confused.

The e x i s t e n c e and c h a r a c t e r of t h e H e r m i t t y p e i s s u b j e c t t o some c o n f l i c t : and a l l t h e b a s i c t y p e s a r e s e e n a s mixed and n e s t e d i n s o c i a l r e a l i t y . The g r i d - g r o u p c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c a n

be a p p l i e d a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f a g g r e g a t i o n , from t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t o s p e c i f i c g r o u p s , t o whole o c c u p a t i o n a l t y p e s , t o n a t i o n a l

p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e s o r whole s o c i e t i e s . Although t h i s h a s o c c a s i o n a l l y been t r e a t e d a s a s i g n o f i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n t h e schema, it i s more r e l e v a n t t o view i t a s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y r a t h e r t h a n o f i t s e l f e x p l a n a t o r y . I t i s a n e c e s s a r y p r e l i m i n a r y t o e x p l a n a t i o n . The "problem o f l e v e l s " t h e n becomes l e s s s e r i o u s , and i n d e e d may b e a p o s i t i v e s o u r c e o f development o f t h e a p p r o a c h towards t h e more complex q u e s t i o n o f s o c i a l change v i a t h e i n t e r - a c t i o n s of s u c h b a s i c t y p e s . For example, s i n g J e o r g a n i s a t i o n s may c o n t a i n a r i c h b l e n d o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s , h i e r a r c h s , s e c t i s t s and i n e f f e c t u a l s . W i t h i n a n o v e r a l l h i e r a r c h i c a l f o r m a l o r g a n i - s a t i o n , s e c t i s t g r o u p s may emerge and o p e r a t e a t a g i v e n l e v e l , s a y i n r e s p o n s e t o moves t o r e o r g a n i z e o r d i s c o n t i n u e t h e i r work. E n t r e p r e n e u r s ( f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l ) may a l s o o p e r a t e a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , i n c o n s t a n t t e n s i o n y e t o v e r a l l u n i t y w i t h t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a s a whole.

Whatever t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of c o n s i s t e n t a p p l i c a b i l i t y and e m p i r i c a l r e f e r e n t s of t h i s i t s e l f r a t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l i s t schema,

i t does a p p e a r t o r e s o n a t e w i t h b r o a d e r e x p e r i e n c e and r e s e a r c h

on o r g a n i s a t i o n s and ( w i t h more d i f f i c u l t y ) p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e s [ l o ] . A f u r t h e r c r i t i c i s m , however, i s t h a t t h e b a s i c m e t a p h y s i c s of

t h i s t h e o r y a r e a v e r s i o n of " n a i v e p l u r a l i s m " ; t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e c u l t u r a l emphasis u s e f u l l y r e i n t e g r a t e s c o g n i t i v e d i m e n s i o n s o f s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r , t h e r e i s no t a l k of power, even though t h e schema p r e t e n d s t o encompass p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s .

A v a l u a b l e l i n k a g e h a s been p r o v i d e d , however, by T h o m p s o n ! ~ s u g g e s t i o n [ 1 1 1 t h a t t h e d i a g o n a l between ~ i e r a r c h i s t and E n t r e p r e n e u r

( B u r e a u c r a t and I n n o v a t o r ) c a n be r e g a r d e d a s a j o i n t a x i s o f power ( a n d complacency) a s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y t r e a t e d i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e . I n 3-D s p a c e , w i t h power a s a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n , t h i s a x i s c o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a r i d g e c o n n e c t i n g t h e E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l q u a d r a n t w i t h t h e H i e r a r c h i s t . Although t e n s i o n s e x i s t a l o n g i t , t h e r e a r e many c o a l i t i o n s and e l i t e f o r m a t i o n s i n s o c i e t y which c o n s t i t u t e t h i s r i d g e s y s t e m . The I n e f f e c t u a l s c a n b e r e g a r d e d

a s a p r e t t y f l a t l a n d s c a p e , and t h e S e c t i s t s , f o r o u r p u r p o s e s r a d i c a l g r a s s - r o o t s l a b o u r u n i o n s e c t i o n s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l o r o t h e r a c t i v i s t campaigning g r o u p s , a s l i g h t l y l e s s l o w l y a n d , as w e s h a l l see, more t u r b u l e n t l a n d s c a p e . T h i s d i a g o n a l a x i s m i g h t b e c a l l e d t h e a x i s o f i n s t a b i l i t y and p o w e r l e s s n e s s .

Although t h i s rough schema g i v e s u s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f t e s t i n g i d e a s a b o u t c h a n g i n g s o c i a l p a t t e r n s t h r o u g h t h e whole s y s t e m , I a m i n t e r e s t e d h e r e i n e x p l o r i n g o n l y one p a r t , namely what makes p e o p l e and g r o u p s more from b e i n g p a s s i v e , a l i e n a t e d and d i s o r i e n t e d " i n e f f e c t u a l s " , t o become a c t i v e , e v e n z e a l o u s , i n t e r v e n o r s i n t h e p r o c e s s of t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e c i s i o n and

development. How d o e s t h i s a p p a r e n t l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e s u d d e ~

p r o c e s s come a b o u t ? T h i s h a s become a q u e s t i o n o f g r e a t p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e w h e t h e r t o government a g e n c i e s w i s h i n g t o a n t i c i p a t e and c o n t a i n s u c h movements w i t h i n t h e i r p l a n n i n g h o r i z o n s , o r t o a c t i v i s t s wondering why t h e y a r e n o t b e i n g j o i n e d by mass u p r i s i n g s i n t h e i r c a u s e . D i s s a t i s f i e d by t h e s i m p l i s t i c

( t h o u g h no d o u b t p a r t l y t r u e ) N I M B Y e x p l a n a t i o n [I21

,

I have t r i e d t o d i g d e e p e r i n t o t h e l a b y r i n t h of p s y c h i c t u n n e l s by which

i n e f f e c t u a l s , r a t h e r t h a n t r y t o s c a l e t h e r i d g e s e p a r a t i n g them from a c t i v i s m , i n s t e a d burrow t h r o u g h l i k e moles t o t h e o t h e r s i d e .

- 1 0 -

111. THE AXIS OF INSTABILITY

Although t h e I n e f f e c t u a l s c a t e g o r y i s p r o b a b l y t h e most complex o f a l l t h o s e advanced by t h e g r i d - g r o u p schema, t h i s

c o m p l e x i t y r e n d e r s i t p e r h a p s t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g . By d e f i n i t i o n , many o f t h e a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s o f t h i s c a t e g o r y a r e i n a r t i c u l a t e , p a r t i a l and l a t e n t . T h i s i s , a f t e r a l l , t h e c e n t r a l a r e n a o f the p e r e n n i a l " f a l s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s " q u e s t i o n [ 1 3 1 A l l t h e o t h e r g r o u p s u s e t h i s p a s s i v e i f d i f f e r e n t i a t e d m a j o r i t y i n t h e i r own s c h e m e s , i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s o f " t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t " and

d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s o f w h y t h e m a j o r i t y i s s o s i l e n t , c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h t h e i r own c u l t u r a l b i a s . T h i s s e c t o r c o u l d p e r h a p s b e

r e g a r d e d a s a h e t e r o g e n e o u s aqueous s o l u t i o n , i n v i s i b l y s u p e r -

s a t u r a t e d i n p a r t s , where l o c a l s e e d i n g g i v e s sudden c r y s t a l l i s a t i o n and a n e n t i r e l y new c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f p h a s e s and i n t e r a c t i o n s .

These new p h a s e s a r e o u r a n a l o g y f o r a c t i v i s t g r o u p s w i t h e g a l i t a r i a n s e c t i s t p r o p e r t i e s .

From beaming i t s i d e o l o g y one way t o w a r d s t h e p a s s i v e , a l i e n a t e d m a j o r i t y , t h e a x i s o f power now s u d e n l y h a s t o f a c e t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n t o o . To m a i n t a i n power and a u t h o r i t y t o w a r d s t h i s s e c t o r w i t h i t s d i f f e r e n t r a t i o n a l i t y may r e q u i r e

v e r y d i f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t s , p e r h a p s e v e n o n e s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h o s e e f f e c t i v e f o r k e e p i n g t h e i n e f f e c t u a l s q u i e s c e n t . T h i s i s s u g g e s t e d c o n c e p t u a l l y i n F i g u r e 1 , and i s b o r n e o u t i n

e m p i r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e .

F o r e x a m p l e , when c o n t r o v e r s i a l p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s a b o u t complex t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e made by i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e p u b l i c h e a r i n g s , l e g a l p r o c e s s e s , e t c . , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p u b l i c l a n g u a g e a s e x p e r t d i s c o v e r y p r o b l e m s ,

This description only inflames the (often well-informed)

relevant activist groups, because their disaffection is strongly rooted in antagonism towards expertise and technocracy. They demand more explicit recognition of moral and political choices-- a (low grid) language of prescription rather than objective

structure. What is good legitimating language for keeping the quiescent majority quiescent is exactly the opposite for these

"sectist" activists. I have elsewhere described in detail this tension in the case of the 1977 Windscale Inquiry and its

framing legal rationality [lo]. Conversely, describing the issue in the language of inevitable expert uncertainty, thus

("difficult, so you may losev) political and values choices, even if the specific decision had gone against them, would have mitigated the impact on many activists because this language caters to their cultural style of moral prescription; but, by the same token, it would have invited some quiescents to join the fray and take issue,

Seeing this relationship as a fragile balance-in-tension of contradictory ideological tendencies and relationships offers us an analytical framework within which the relatively sudden

shifts which are frequently seen in attitudes and levels of conflict--political surprise--can be conceivable. Regular symbolic action [15] beamed in one direction and apparently successful at keeping consensus-by-quiescence may conceal from tfie view of the power elite the growth of activists as it were popping up threateningly behind it. The cultural filters of the elite may allow the activists to develop into significant features of the political landscape with solid connection (e.g. via the skilful use of the media) with the popular culture called

"ineffectuals", before they begin to take them seriously.

Once t a k e n s e r i o u s l y , however, some i n t e r e s t i n g dynamics may emerge. S e c t i s t g r o u p s a r e h i g h l y e g a l i t a r i a n , g r a s s - r o o t s i n s t y l e . They a r e a n t a g o n i s t i c t o w a r d s l e a d e r s , s p o k e s p e r s o n s a n d e x p e r t s , w h i c h i s why t h e l e a d e r s h i p r i t u a l s o f s u c h g r o u p s a r e o f t e n more a g o n i s i n g a n d b l o o d y t h a n t h o s e where a t l e a s t

t h e n o t i o n o f l e a d e r i s a c c e p t e d [ 1 6 1 . D e s p i t e t h i s , however, b e i n g t a k e n s e r i o u s l y demands t h a t l e a d e r s and s p o k e s p e r s o n s be

d e p u t e d . I n r e g u l a r n e c e s s a r y i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f power s u c h a r o l e demands i n c r e a s i n g l y e x p e r t , t e c h n i c a l

l a n g u a g e o f a r g u m e n t . T y p i c a l l y , s u c h l e a d e r s move, i n l a n g u a g e a t t i t u d e s and s t y l e , t o w a r d s t h e a x i s o f power and t h e e l i t e s t h e y b e g i n by r e j e c t i n g . They f i n d t h e m s e l v e s t o r n b e t w e e n , on t h e one h a n d , l o y a l t y t o t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l i s t , uncompromising g r a s s r o o t s w i t h i t s b o s o m - l i k e s e c u r i t y b u t p o l i t i c a l l y " o u t - s i d e r " s t a t u s ; a n d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o t h e r e s p e c t a b l e m a r g i n s o f t h e p o l i c y e l i t e , where s t a t u s and r e c o g n i t i o n a r e t r a d e d f o r ' t h e w i l l i n g n e s s t o e m a s c u l a t e

o r i g i n a l a r g u m e n t s i n t o t h e n a r r o w t e c h n i c a l d i c o u r s e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t . They g r a v i t a t e t o w a r d s t o p - r i g h t , F i g u r e 3 ,

t o w a r d s c o o p t i o n .

T h i s k i n d o f m e t a s t a b l e s t a t e c a n e x i s t f o r y e a r s , w i t h a c t i v i s t g r o u p s i n a c o n t i n u a l s t a t e o f c r i s i s and u p h e a v a l o v e r t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p , p r o p e r s t r a t e g i e s and s t y l e s o f argument.

I f t h e i r l e a d e r s r e d u c e t h i s t e n s i o n by becoming t o o c o o p t e d * , t o o drawn t o w a r d s t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l s e c t o r , s u c h g r o u p s may

s i m p l y and q u i t e r a p i d l y d i s s o l v e back i n t o anonymity and t h e m a j o r i t y

* T h i s c o o p t i o n p r o c e s s , i t s s u c c e s s e s , e b b s and f l o w s , d e p e n d s a l s o upon t h e s t r u c t u r e and f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , which i s a t l e a s t p a r t l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e s p e c i f i c i s s u e . C o o p t i o n may b e more l i k e l y w i t h c o n f i d e n t e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ( e . g . UK) a n d l e s s w i t h i n s e c u r e , t h u s i n t r a n s i g e n t , o n e s .

resume t h e i r membership o f t h e i n e f f e c t u a l s ; t h e p r o c e s s of h i g h - group boundary-maintenance and t h e f e r v e n t a r t i c u l a t i o n o f

common i d e n t i t y and p u r p o s e f a l l a p a r t . I t may b e , of c o u r s e , t h a t c o p t i o n of l e a d e r s and t h e emergence of new l e a d e r s from t h e g r a s s r o o t s i s a n e n d l e s s p r o c e s s , m a i n t a i n i n g t h e a c t i v e if t u r b u l e n t e x i s t e n c e o f v i g o r o u s " s e c t i s t " g r o u p s . If such g r o u p s do d i s a p p e a r from view, t h e i r members may s t i l l make up a l a t e n t n u c l e u s - - t o u s e t h e e a r l i e r m e t a p h o r , a s u p e r - s a t u r a t e d a r e a o f s o l u t i o n - - f o r l a t e r r e a c t i v a t i o n , , p e r h a p s on a n a d j a c e n t b u t n o t i d e n t i c a l i s s u e .

T h i s k i n d o f a n a l y s i s c o r r e s p o n d s s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e a p p r o a c h t o a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o u r which r e j e c t s t h e r a t i o n a l economic i n d i - v i d u a l c a l c u l a t o r model, o f v a l u e s , g o a l s and i n t e r e s t s a s c l e a r , s t a b l e and c o n c r e t ~ [ 1 7 ] . I t s u p p o r t s t h e view of p e o p l e and t h e i r a t t i t u d e s a s more t e n t a t i v e , e x p e r i m e n t a l , i n c o m p l e t e and p e r h a p s i n t e r n a l l y i n c o n s i s t e n t ; humans a s f l e x i b l e managers o f t h e c o n f l i c t i n g ,

complex grounds o f t h e i r own b e i n g . They may be more a m b i v a l e n t ,

" u n s t a b l e " and open t o s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e i r g o a l s and v a l u e s by dominant c u l t u r a l s t i m u l i t h a n more i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , r a t i o n a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h e s and methods c l a i m . I t i s c u l t u r e , n o t i n d i v i d u a l s , which g i v e s t h e s e v a l u e s what c o n s i s t e n c y and f o r c e t h e y may h a v e .

S i n c e t e c h n o l o g y p r o v i d e s p o t e n t e x p e r i e n c e s and images which s h a p e meanings, p e r c e p t i o n s and b e h a v i o u r , i t may be r e g a r d e d a s a key s u b s t r a t e o f c u l t u r e . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t modern t e c h n o l o g y p r o v i d e s u n i f o r m mass e x p e r i e n c e , i t may be a form of common

c u l t u r e c r o s s - c u t t i n g and u n d e r l y i n g o r d e s t r o y i n g t h e d i f f e r -

e n t i a t i o n s which t h e g r i d - g r o u p a p p r o a c h p o s i t s [ 1 8 1 . I s h a l l a d v a n c e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e : t h a t s u c h d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s a r e under-acknowledged

and a r e f a r s t r o n g e r t h a n g e n e r a l l y assumed; t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h e i r g u i d i n g r a t i o n a l i t i e s which p e o p l e i n v e s t

in technology are more varied, contradictory and important than received models of "technologyv can accomodate; and that their systematic analysis and recognition is of practical importance to technology policy. It is worth attempting to examine the expression of attitudes and self-images in technological

experiences, and then to explore the psychological and socio- logical undercurrents of these. Technology can be regarded as culture in the sense that it is a potent framework relating

dimensions of belief and meaning to social relations and processes;

and it is p o Z i t i c a Z culture in that the social relations of power embodied by the technology are more or less successfully legitimated by the cognitive structures which are naturalised in the culture, and which thus conceal those underlying structures of power from critical examination and possible change.

IV. TECHNOLOGICAL ANIMISM

In his classic account of the social and psychic devastation caused by the 1972 Buffalo Creek dam failure in the Appalachian mountains [ I 91

,

Kai Erickson observes that the reaction of the economically and politically marginal- people who were victims of that "point-disaster" was profoundly conditioned by their

internalisation of the state of "chronic disaster" represented in their long term neglect and alienation from employers and public authorities. The psychic withdrawal characteristic of extreme traumatic shock was already consolidated on the

community scale in the alienation and self-dependence of the community, trusting none of the agencies on whom they neverthe- less depended and thus tolerated for economic survival. Erickson argues that what was most significant about the social aftermath of the disaster was not the personal trauma--"psychic numbingw-- which everyone experienced, but the collective trauma, the

inability of the old social networks to reestablish themselves

as the framework of personal psychic convalescence and development.

The people felt betrayed by the coal company which neglected the dam whose burst caused the disaster, not because they had

previously thought it a conscientious company, but because structurally, in their position, they had to trust it, despite

realistic appreciation of its selfish motives, past neglects, etc.

In

rickso on's

perspective 1 2 0 1 the powerless always tend to defend and rationalisel thus consolidate, their own inpotence and apathy because to do otherwise is to expose themselves to the greater human damage

of explicit neglect and powerlessness. They withdraw, and justify and defend that withdrawal as consistent with cosmic principles; it becomes their culture, integrating their beliefs about cause and effect in the experiences they encounter, with their established social relationships. Erickson saw the classic symptoms of trauma in the ordinary human reactions to "the

age we are entering", namely "a sense of cultural disorientation, a feeling of powerlessness, a dulled apathy, and a generalised fear about the state of the universe" [ 2 1 1 . These correspond with the features of the "ineffectuals" of the high Grid-low Group

cultural category. They are the symptoms of social experiences and roles which are highly prescribed by others, yet where the structure of such prescriptions--of their own marginality and manipulation--is obscure. The "effective causes" of their powerlessness are socially invisible. What Erickson also saw being enacted in social reality was the tentative, fragile nature of movements out of apathy and disorientation. What community developments there had been in that direction were swept away by the flood, which was analogous to the condensation onto a single, extreme dramatic event, of years of non-affirmation

(identity-stripping) by the outside world.

I have made t h i s e x c u r s i o n i n t o E r i c k s o n r s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a man-made d i s a s t e r i n o r d e r n o t o n l y t o h e l p uncover t h e

c o m p l e x i t i e s of a t t i t u d e s and some c o n t i n u i t i e s between h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s and h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s : I a l s o want t o e x p l o r e how

technology--here a dam c e n t r a l t o t h e community's e x i s t e n c e ( i t was p a r t of t h e l o c a l c o a l mine s y s t e m which employed most o f t h e p e o p l e ) - -

i s e x t e r n a l i s e d i n images which shape c u l t u r a l a t t i t u d e s which

i m p l i c i t l y r e f l e c t back p e o p l e ' s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a s a l i e n o b j e c t s , beyond t h e i r c o n t r o l o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o a l t e r . I n t h e B u f f a l o Creek c a s e , t h e s u r v i v o r s seemed t o have a c l e a r s e n s e of who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e t e c h n o l o g y ' s havoc, b u t an e q u a l s e n s e of h o p e l e s s n e s s t h a t any- t h i n g might be done a b o u t i t . The e f f e c t i v e c a u s e ^0f t h e i r d i s a s t e r ^{w a k} a t l e a s t seen a s human a g e n t s , even if t h e s e were b e l i e v e d t o be beyond c o n t r o l . T h i s , however, might be t a k e n a s a n extreme example of a con- c r e t e l y v i s i b l e t e c h n o l o g y w i t h c l e a r l i n e s of c o n t r o l and r e s p o n s i b i l - i t y . Many o t h e r t e c h n o l o g i e s t y p i c a l of t h e modern age--nuclear power, g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g , and p e r h a p s most e s p e c i a l l y c o m p u t e r s - - l i e a t t h e o p p o s i t e end. T h e i r c o n t r o l l i n g human a g e n t s a r e i n v i s i b l e , d i f f u s e and s o c i a l l y remote. I t i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r o r d i n a r y p e o p l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e e f f e c t i v e c a u s e s of t h e i r c o n f u s i n g and o f t e n t r o u b l i n g e x p e r i e n c e of t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s , even i f t h e y do n o t produce d r a m a t i c i n t e r v e n - t i o n s i n t h e i r l i v e s . Yet t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s r e q u i r e s t h a t p e o p l e c o n s t r u c t some working e x p l a n a t i o n s s o a s t o r a t i o n a l i s e them one way o r t h e o t h e r .

One example of t h e way s u c h e f f e c t i v e c a u s e s i n t e c h n o l o g y

have been m y s t i f i e d , and images c u l t i v a t e d , i s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 2 [ 2 2 ]

.

The technology--here a n u c l e a r power s t a t i o n of t h e most

"advanced1' s o r t ( t h e Dounreay f a s t r e a c t o r ) - - i s d e i f i e d t o t h e e x t e n t n o t o n l y of h o v e r i n g , disembodied above t h e mere e a r t h , b u t w i t h a h a l o t o d e n o t e i t s moral p u r i t y and m a g i c a l power,

.a>~ad JOJ

ramod slya Sulssau~ry jo auaura~a!yae aya UI a p ! ~ d p acuas r 1aaj uea u a c u o ~ pue uau, a s a y l 'UO(SlAa(a1 p u t O ( p e ~ *s~?drdsmau W O l J 'Xcp Xq L r p ' ~ a m o d mau X ~ J P L ! l l l j0 Smau JIaqa

~aqaeP ' a a ! ~ ~ a s JOJ passau~ey aq Il!m woar aya u o q u ~ o j ' p l ~ o u aya jo aldoad >say1 'uaas aq u a ~ a aouuca aeqa o>Jrlos e UOJJ 8u1nssl ~ a m o d p u t aqS!~ .araq JO 13adso~d ~ ~ a s e a u e j aqa ae pazewm purat 'pulqueur oa ueaw ur2 a 8 y >lcuoay aqa a e y ~ p ~UIJWIUJ!I~ e L ~ U O qalm 'qdoad j o s u o ! l l l ~

The caption invites people to awe-struck worship, dazzling them from any perception, let alone questioning of the agencies, interests, uncertainties and human frailties behind the image.

This is symbolic action in extremis.

An important consequence of this socially constructed invisibility of effective causes in technology is indicated in a small part of the caption of Figure 2. Part of the imagery of magic power is the fact that the "fantastic prospect" will

emanate mysteriously, from a superior force that cannot be seen, heard or felt. These properties of ionizing radiation, then used to intensify the positive power of the technology, are the very ones which are now regarded as intensifying

exaggerated hostility and fear. In other words, legitimation was created by cultivating the idea of awesome, other-worldly power, beyond the bounds of ordinary nature and culture, but this disorienting relationship's corollary is a double-edged instability which can easily and suddenly flip over fromberrign externality to malign externality.

The point is that with effective causes and structures of responsibility so obscured, the only responses possible are total acceptance (tinged with an ambivalent potential for

anxiety in the face of such supernormal power) or total rejection (tinged with fascination at the sheer technical mastery such

technology may entail). There is no possibility for measured criticism and conditional, qualified responses--all possible currencies of discrimination have been historically obliterated, leaving behind inflexible absolutes. This is tantamount to

primitive thought, where the symbol is collapsed into the word,

and no c r e a t i v e t e n s i o n s e x i s t any l o n g e r between t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l s k e l e t o n s o f i d e a s and l i t e r a l v e r s i o n s o f t h e metaphor. P e o p l e behave a s i f t h e t e c h n o l o g y were l i t e r a l l y a n a l i e n b e i n g from s p a c e .

P s y c h o a n a l y s t s have examined c l i n i c a l c a s e s i n v o l v i n g

s i m i l a r condensed images o f t e c h n o l o g y which have become c e n t r a l s u r r o g a t e s f o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f more complex e x p e r i e n c e s and

p o t e n t i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s which p e o p l e c a n n o t h a n d l e . These i m a g e s , o r s p e c t e r s , a r e n o t o n l y p s y c h i c s i m p l i f i e r s b u t a l s o f r a e w o r k s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s : and t h e y a r e b u i l t around t e c h n o l o g i c a l images, p e r h a p s i n c r e a s i n g l y s o , g i v e n t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y c e n t r a l r o l e o f s u c h e x p e r i e n c e i n d a i l y l i f e .

Daly d e f i n e s a s p e c t e r a s a k i n d o f p o t e n t , a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d b u t i n v i s i b l e b e h a v i o u r a l f o r c e [ 2 3 ] :

"A s e n s e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h f o r c e s a r i s e s when men f i n d t h e y c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r e m o t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s by a s c r i b i n g them t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s o u r c e s o f power and e f f i c a c y ( e . g . human, n a t u r a l , d i v i n e ) which a r e b e l i e v e d t o make t h i n g s happen i n the w o r l d . When s u c h i n e x p l i c a b l e e v e n t s p e r s i s t and a r e e x p e r i e n c e d by numbers o f p e o p l e , a g e n c i e s a r e c r e a t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e e v e n t s . These a g e n c i e s a r e g i v e n names, made i n t o r e a l i t i e s , and a d a p t e d t o a s p o w e r f u l t h i n g s

....

The s p e c t r a l view o f t e c h n o l o g y a r i s e s from a s e n s e o f d o m i n a t i o n by m y s t e r i o u s f o r c e s o r a g e n c i e s which a r e , o r w e r e , l i n k e d t o t e c h n o l o g i c a l e n t e r p r i s e s b u t which a r e now apprehended a s b e i n g beyond t h e c o n t r o l o f any p a r t i c u l a r man o r c o l l e c t i o n o f men....

[ P e o p l e ] behave a s i f t h e s p i r i t o f m e e t i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n many d i s c r e e t , l i m i t e d and f i n i t e human v e n t u r e s had t a k e n f l i g h t from t h e hands o f r e s p o n s i b l e a g e n t s and become an i n d e p e n d e n t r e a l i t y - - a r e a l i t y which h a s come t o o v e r h a n g t h e modern w o r l d and t o e n t e r i n t o t h e dynamic p r o c e s s e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y - - a s a s p e c t r a l o b j e c t .

"

T h e r e i s , i n o t h e r words, a r i t u a l d e f e n c e mechanism--a t r a n s f e r e n c e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r complex and i n e x p l i c a b l e e x p e r i e n c e s which a r e t o o e m o t i o n a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o b e i g n o r e d . Daly d e s c r i b e s how s e v e r a l p a t i e n t s c r e a t e d s u c h s p e c t e r s o f t h e i r own b i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , i n v e s t i n g them w i t h powers t o d e c i d e

and c u t a c l e a n swathe t h r o u g h o t h e r w i s e overpowering a m b i g u i t i e s . Thus t h e y would o b s e s s i v e l y r e f e r t o a s i m p l e measure s u c h a s t h e i r p u l s e r a t e a s a g u i d e t o d e c i s i o n making--it w a s made

i n t o a s o u r c e o f " o b j e c t i v e d e c i s i o n r u l e s " s u p p o s e d l y r e f l e c t i n g a g r e a t e r , more p o w e r f u l b u t i m p e n e t r a b l e b i o l o g i c a l mechanism.

Such a g e n t s may become a b s o r b e d i n t o p a r t o f o n e ' s v e r y i d e n t i t y ; o r more a c c u r a t e l y p e r h a p s , o n e ' s i d e n t i t y may be shaped b y , t h e n a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e image, one becomesl"a cog i n a machine", o r , w i t h B e t t e l h e i m ' s " J o e y : a m e c h a n i c a l boy1', an e l e c t r i c a l a p p l i a n c e who " p l u g s h i m s e l f i n " and " s w i t c h e s h i m s e l f o n " b e f o r e he can

s p e a k , and who c a u s e s o t h e r s t o behave i n p a r a l l e l f a s h i o n i n o r d e r t o r e l a t e t o him [ 2 4 ]

.

I t i s a c e n t r a l p o i n t o f D a l y l s a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e y a r e no l o n g e r , i f t h e y e v e r w e r e , r e s t r i c t e d t o

c l i n i c a l l y p s y c h o t i c i n d i v i d u a l s . They a r e now i n h i s view mass n e u r o s e s , t r a n s m i t t e d i n normal p r o c e s s e s of c u l t u r a l d i s s e m i n a t i o n . Given t h e k i n d s o f s y m b o l i c a c t i o n d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 2 , t h i s i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g . I n d e e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l u s e o f images o f s c i e n t i f i c , t e c h n i c a l power a s i f from o u t s i d e t h e r e a l m o f human i n t e r e s t s and v a l u e s h a s i r o n i c a l l y c u l t i v a t e d a n e s c a l a t i n g s e a r c h f o r o b j e c t i v e d e c i s i o n r u l e s from s c i e n c e , a k i n t o a c o l l e c t i v e s c a l e v e r s i o n of c o n s u l t i n g p u l s e - r a t e s , s u c h a s t h e e t e r n a l e f f o r t t o a v o i d t h e a m b i g u i t y o f n e g o t i a t i n g

a c c e p t a b i l i t y from s i t u a t i o n t o s i t u a t i o n , by i n s t e a d c r e a t i n g o b j e c t i v t s c a l e s o f " a c c e p t a b l e r i s k " . The a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f t h e s e e n t i t i e s

and t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r e v e r p r o v i d i n g what t h e y p r o m i s e may n e v e r be a p p a r e n t t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f i n e f f e c t u a l s s i n c e t h e y a r e embedded i n a whole l a b y r i n t h o f d e n s e m a n a g e r i a l p o l i t i c a l l a n g u a g e and i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r r i e r s . But t h e i r c o n s t a n t u s a g e i n k e e p i n g t h e i n e f f e c t u a l s a t bay i s j u s t .what d i s a f f e c t s and a c t i v a t e s t h e s e c t i s t s even more [26]

.

V . TECHNOLOGICAL ANIMISM AND SOCIAL ACTIVATION

I n many c a s e s t h e c r e a t i o n o f s u c h t e c h n o l o g i c a l s p e c t r e s may i r o n i c a l l y b e a n e s s e n t i a l l y r a t i o n a l r e a c t i o n t o i r r a t i o n a l

s i t u a t i o n s . Most p e o p l e a r e f r a g m e n t s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s which e n t a i l many c o n n e c t e d p a r t s whose c o o r d i n a t i o n i s

e s s e n t i a l , b u t complex and c h r o n i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c . However, t h e y n e v e r e x p e r i e n c e t h e whole s y s t e m [27]: t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i s f r a g m e n t a r y and bounded by t h e i r l o c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t , w i t h i n which t h e y have t o make o u t . F i n d i n g

it i m p o s s i b l e t o p e n e t r a t e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e i r l o c a l

e x p e r i e n c e and t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r a t i o n a l i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s and i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h o s e whose d o i n g s s t r u c t u r e t h a t s i t u a t i o n , t h e y c r e a t e s h o r t h a n d images t o " e x p l a i n v t h o s e e x t e r n a l a g e n c i e s and t h e i r f r e q u e n t u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y and a p p a r e n t m a l e v o l a n c e .

A g r a p h i c example o f t h i s was g i v e n by McDermott, who d e s c r i b e d a s p e c t e r c r e a t e d by American G I , s i n Vietnam [ 2 8 ]

.

They were o p e r a t i n g i n t h e j u n g l e , c o n s t a n t l y s n i p e d o r a t t a c k e d by V i e t c o n g g u e r i l l a s who c o u l d n e v e r be i d e n t i f i e d and p i n n e d down; r e g u l a r l y s h e l l e d and r o c k e t e d , b u t n e v e r s u r e i t w a s n ' t

t h e i r own s i d e ; and r e c e i v e d o r d e r s b u t n e v e r e x p l a n a t i o n s from t h e i r s u p e r i o r s . T h e i r e x p e r i e n c e was f r i g h t e n i n g , c o n f u s i n g , c o n t r a d i c t o r y and u t t e r l y o b s c u r e a s t o i t s e f f e c t i v e c a u s e s . They c o u l d n ' t f i n d a n enemy a n d t h e y c o u l d n ' t i d e n t i f y t h e i r own s i d e . Y e t t h e y r e c e i v e d o r d e r s and w e r e a t t a c k e d i n e q u a l l y a r b i t r a r y f a s h i o n . A s p a r t o f t h e i r r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f t h i s

( v e r y h i g h - g r i d ) p r e d i c a m e n t t h e G I ' s h a d c o n d e n s e d t h e p o t e n t , b u t d i f f u s e a n d i n v i s i b l e e f f e c t i v e c a u s e s o n t o a s i n g l e a g e n t , a " h u g e - f u c k i n g " gun which l i v e d i n a h o l l o w e d - o u t m o u n t a i n , a n d which emerged a t whim t o u n l o a d d e a t h a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o n t o them.

I t was a n a g e n t beyond c o n t r o l , imbued w i t h a k i n d o f autonomous m a l e v o l e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e .

.

I n one m a j o r s e n s e it was no c o m f o r t a t a l l , b u t i n a n o t h e r s e n s e it was, b e c a u s e a t l e a s t i t

o f f e r e d e x p l a n a t i o n . I t w a s a k i n d o f metaphor r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h o s e e l i t e s ( a n d h e r e a l s o e n e m i e s ) who r e m o t e l y a n d i n v i s i b l y c o n t r o l l e d t h e i r f a t e .

Langdon Winner h a s a l s o d i s c u s s e d t h i s p r o c e s s a s t e c h n o l o g i c a l animism [29]. H e t a k e s t h e s t o r y o f Rudy i n V o n n e g u t ' s P l a y e r

P i a n o . Rudy w a s a mechanic whose j o b h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d by a u t o m a t i o n - - h i s s k i l l s a n d e x p e r i e n c e h a d been r e d u c e d t o a n a l g o r i t h m a n d e n t i r e l y handed o v e r t o a c o m p u t e r . D e e p l y ' u p s e t a n d m y s t i f i e d by t h i s s h a t t e r i n g o f h i s v e r y i d e n t i t y , Rudy e n a c t s a s c e n e i n a cafe w i t h a d o c t o r f r i e n d , where h e g o e s i n t o a f r e n z y o v e r what h e sees as t h e c r e e p y , superhuman

i n t e l l i g e n c e c o n t r o l l i n g t h e k e y b o a r d movements on a s i m p l e s l o t machine ( P l a y e r ) p i a n o . P e r h a p s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a s a more

e d u c a t e d b e i n g h e sees t h r o u g h t h i s c o n v e r s i o n o f c o n c r e t e i f h i d d e n human g o a l s a n d i n t e r e s t s i n t o extra-human, t h e r e f o r e un-

t o u c h a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e s , t h e d o c t o r f r i e n d h a s t o g e t up a n d

walk o u t on t h i s p a t h e t i c s c e n e . I n Winner's words [ 3 0 ] , t h i s s c e n e g i v e s :

" a glimpse of t h e c r u c i a l s t a t e m e n t and u l t i m a t e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e w r i t i n g s on t e c h n o l o g i c a l animism. I f one a s k s , Where d i d t h i s s t r a n g e l i f e i n t h e a p p a r a t u s come from?

What i s i t s r e a l o r i g i n ? t h e answer i s c l e a r : i t i s human l i f e t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o a r t i f i c e . Men e x p o r t t h e i r own v i t a l powers--the a b i l i t y t o move, t o e x p e r i e n c e , t o work and t o t h i n k - - i n t o t h e d e v i c e s of t h e i r making. They t h e n e x p e r i e n c e t h i s l i f e a s something a l i e n and removed, something t h a t comes back a t them from a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n . I n t h i s way t h e e x p e r i e n c e of l i f e becomes e n t i r e l y

v i c a r i o u s .

. . .

Man now l i v e s i n and t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l c r e a t i o n s . The p e c u l i a r p r o p e r t i e s we may n o t i c e i n t h e s e c r e a t i o n s a r e n o t t h e r e s u l t o f some s p o n t a n e o u s g e n e r a t i o n . What w e see i s human l i f e s e p a r a t e d from t h e d i r e c t i n g , c o n t r o l l i n g p o s i t i v e agency of human minds and s o u l s . "

W i n n e r ' s i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t s h e r e must, however, be q u a l i f i e d , o r p e r h a p s c l a r i f i e d , by one i m p o r t a n t p o i n t . Although men do

" e x p o r t t h e i r own v i t a l powersw i n t o t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s t h e y have c r e a t e d , and r e f l e c t them back a s a l i e n s beyond c o n t r o l , t h i s f a l s e l y i m p l i e s a l a c k of any s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o r c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n t h i s p r o c e s s . E l i t e s a r e a l s o immersed i n t h e i r myths and f a n t a s i e s a b o u t t e c h n o l o g i c a l power, and non- e l i t e s do make t e c h n o l o g i c a l c r e a t i o n s . But i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o see t h a t t h o s e i n e f f e c t u a l s a r e c i r c u m s c r i b e d by m y s t i f i c a t i o n s c r e a t e d t h r o u g h d o m i n a t i o n by d e c i s i o n making e l i t e s , a domination whose a r b i t r a r y human s t r u c t u r e i s i n c r e a s i n g l y s o c i a l l y complex, remote and t h u s " i n v i s i b l e v . They t h e r e f o r e t r a n s f e r

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y from t h i s f r u s t r a t i n g l y i n t a n g i b l e and i m p e n e t r a b l e human complex, o n t o extra-human s p e c t r e s . T h i s i s t r a n s f e r and

c o n d e n s a t i o n n o t s o much o f t h e i r own (anyway small) r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and power, b u t o f t h e power o f e l i t e s i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

around them. The myths and f a n t a s i e s of t h e a x i s o f complacency ( s e e F i g u r e 1 ) a c t i v e l y promote t h i s m y s t i f i c a t i o n and c o n c r e t i - s a t i o n o f t h e i r own power, even i f n o t a l w a y s d e l i b e r a t e l y .

Not o n l y d o e s t h i s c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s a r t i f i c i a l l y c o n s o l i d a t e t h e a x i s o f power by p l a c i n g it a p p a r e n t l y beyond human a c c e s s ,

b u t i t e n c o u r a g e s a l a c k o f human t o l e r a n c e f o r a m b i g u i t y , t h u s a s t r u c - ! t u r a l b r i t t l e n e s s i n t h e s y s t e m . When r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s s o condensed i o n t o s u c h t e c h n o l o g i c a l s p e c t r e s whose i n n e r w o r k i n g s a r e i n -

a c c e s s i b l e , e x p e r i e n c e h a s t o be i n t e r p r e t e d , and l i f e c o n d u c t e d , by e i t h e r t o t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h o r t o t a l r e p u d i a t i o n o f

s u c h s p e c t r e s . Thus p u b l i c " d e b a t e " and i n t e r a c t i o n becomes r i g i d and p r o n e t o sudden d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s : government i t s e l f may become l e s s v i a b l e . A s C r o z i e r h a s p u t i t , t h e r e i s no a u t h o r i t y w i t h o u t n e g o t i a t i o n [ 3 1 ] , and s i n c e s u c h f a n t a s i e s and s p e c t r e s preempt t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n e g o t i a t i o n by r e p l a c i n g and " b l a c k - b o x i n g " more d i s c r i m i n a t i n g p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e l a t i o n - s h i p s and c a u s e s , t h e y t e n d t o d e s t r o y even t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y .

A good example of t h e a b s o l u t e c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f t e c h n o l o g y , and t h e l i n k a g e s between t h e s e and power s t r u c t u r e s , a r o s e d u r i n g t h e 1977 Windscale I n q u i r y

[321. T h i s was a p u b l i c i n q u i r y i n t o a p l a n t o b u i l d a new

p l a n t t o r e p r o c e s s s p e n t n u c l e a r f u e l from t h e new g e n e r a t i o n o f r e a c t o r s , u s i n g o x i d e f u e l s . T h i s would e x t r a c t p l u t o n i u m

which c o u l d be u s e d i n f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s o r weapons, uranium which c o u l d be r e c y c l e d i n f u r t h e r t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s , and r a d i o - a c t i v e w a s t e s which would u l t i m a t e l y need some s a f e f i n a l d i s p o s a l

The plant was part and parcel of a longer term historical vision of nuclear development reaching out of colossal past commitments and into future ones. Its go-ahead naturally made all of those future envisaged commitments more likely, via institutional momentum and technical-economic logic.

The proponents and the High Court judge in charge defined the issue as the examination of the direct impact only of the reprocessing plant itself, and excluded any question of the implications of future fuel cycle developments which might be entailed by it. These, he argued, would be subject to future separate decisions, and any attempt to cover more comprehensive nuclear futures was "emotive nonsense". Yet many objectors took for granted that the reprocessing plant, being only a part of a historical process, had to be examined as such. Fast reactors, plutonium trading, waste disposal, and reprocessing plants, and so on, all had to be considered.

This issue was only "resolvedv by the f i a t of the judge.

He found it impossible to negotiate with this alternative definition of the problem, perhaps because it was rooted in

o b j . e c t i v e Z y different social experience, which he defined as

"merely" emotive. To the decision making elite it was logical to say that future plants could be separated as decision issues, because they could identify with the whole process in which

those future decisions, aswell as the present ones, would be

made. They could conceive of decision choice and access to those future steps, which were thus separable from the present issue.

To the powerless however, no such identification could be made, because from their objective social position, consoli- dated in empirical historical experience, the processes by