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Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control
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This document is part of the DCAF Backgrounder series, which provides practitioners with concise introductions to a variety of issues in the field of Security Sector Governance and Security Sector
What are female staff associations?
A female staff association (FSA) can be broadly defined as an organisation or network that brings together women working in one or more institutions.
The purpose of an FSA is to support female staff in their professional roles, and may extend to promoting policies and practices that advance the participation of women and/or improve services to women and girls.
An FSA may be mandated by government, organised by the institution or independently organised by female staff. An FSA connects women with other women in their profession to share experiences and perspectives, and to learn from and support each other.
In the security sector, FSAs exist within fire and emergency services, immigration bureaux, judiciaries, legal professions, militaries, ministries, penal services and police services, as well as among members of private security companies. They are most common within police services, the legal profession and the judiciary, where there are also international umbrella organisations that connect and support local and national FSAs (for example, the International Association of Women Police and the International Association of Women Judges). There are a handful of more recently created sector-wide FSAs that bring together female staff from different security sector institutions and bodies. FSAs in the security sector exist on all continents and operate locally, nationally, regionally and globally.
What are the origins of FSAs in the security sector?
The number of women working within the security sector has increased immensely over the last century.
This, combined with growing awareness of women’s rights, led to the establishment of FSAs as formal structures of female solidarity, to enable women to learn from and support one another in the male- dominated work environments of the security sector.
The first FSAs in the security sector were established in the early twentieth century. They became more
Female Staff Associations in the Security Sector
What are female staff associations?
What are the origins of FSAs in the security sector?
How are FSAs in the security sector organised?
How are FSAs in the security sector funded?
What activities do FSAs in the security sector undertake?
What impact do FSAs in the security sector have?
What are key challenges for FSAs in the security sector?
What makes an FSA strong?
How can local, national and international actors support FSAs?
Further information Some FSAs on the web
03/2012
through the 1980s and 1990s, and many new FSAs have emerged over the last decade. While female participation in the security services continues to grow, in most security services women remain a minority and continue to be subject to stereotypical prejudices, gender- based harassment and discrimination.
Box 1: Some examples of FSAs
The Bulgarian Armed Forces Women Association was established in 2006. It works to promote the social status and visibility of women soldiers, and protect their common interests. The association conducts training and workshops on gender equality, takes part in campaigns to support charitable causes and participates in dialogue around implementation of United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 1325.
The US-based International Association of Women in Fire and Emergency Services (iWomen) was established in 1982 and has some 1,000 members. It supports, mentors and educates current and potential female professionals in the fire and emergency services, offering opportunities for members to share knowledge, skills and abilities. iWomen also develops guidelines and recommendations for practical and policy changes within fire and emergency services;
offers resources on reproductive safety, physical abilities testing and sexual harassment to fire department personnel; and runs workshops at conferences hosted by fire service agencies.
The Mongolian Women Lawyers Association was founded in 1992 and has over 700 members, 36 branches across the provinces and districts, and seven full-time staff. It advocates for women’s rights, women’s leadership and women’s participation in social development, and works to make the legal system more responsive to the needs and rights of women. Its activities include filing test cases to challenge laws and policies discriminatory to women; providing free legal services for women; education and training for women lawyers, women in decision-making bodies and law enforcement agencies; and research.
Women in Security Sector – Sierra Leone (WISS-SL) was founded in 2008. Its mandate focuses on promoting women’s rights and gender mainstreaming within the security sector, through inter-agency cooperation, capacity building, networking and exchange of best practices. WISS-SL has promoted dialogue on gender and women’s issues among security sector institutions and strengthened the capacity of female security personnel through induction sessions for new female recruits, mentoring and coaching. Its advocacy has contributed to improved female representation in the prison services, and incorporation of gender into institutional policies and operations.
Box 2: The history of the International Association of Women Police
Women have served in police forces in the United States since 1845. In the 1890s the first woman was given the status of ‘policeman’ with the power of arrest, and in 1910 women were officially recognised within the service when the first ‘policewoman’ was appointed. In 1915 the International Policewomen’s Association was founded in the United States, and became the International Association of Women Police (IAWP) in the 1950s. Through the 1960s and 1970s the IAWP began hosting biannual conferences, putting forward official publications, providing training to both male and female police officers and welcoming male members. In recent years the organisation has adapted to globalisation by strengthening its international links and hosting conferences outside the United States.
It now has members from 55 countries, and affiliated associations of women police in Africa, Central Asia, the Caribbean, Europe, North America and the Persian Gulf.
How are FSAs in the security sector organised?
Accountability and membership structures, funding and reporting relationships vary widely among FSAs in the security sector. Many FSAs operate independently, being accountable to their membership through an elected board of directors or executive committee. Others are a sub-group of a larger staff association (for example, the Liberia Female Law Enforcement Association formed within the Liberia National Law Enforcement Association) and as such are held accountable to that association to varying degrees, and may work within guidelines set by the parent association. Some FSAs are formally established by their security sector institution and are held accountable to that institution. For example, in Namibia the police service appoints women’s network coordinators in each region to implement plans of action.
Membership in most FSAs is restricted to women within a particular institution or sector. Some, however, also welcome men as members, and many welcome men to join in their activities.
Most commonly, membership in an FSA is optional, but within some security services all female staff are automatically members. In a different model, members of some FSAs, in particular those acting as advisory bodies to
other associations, might be selected by the parent organisation. For example, the steering committee of the Ontario Correctional Services’
Women in Corrections Association is composed of persons representing specific roles within the Ministry of Public Safety and Correctional Services – who might be male or female. For regional FSAs, each participating country or organisation might nominate a representative or, alternatively, all women in the region might directly be members of the regional FSA.
The majority of associations have a variety of membership categories, such as a category for individual members who are active in or retired from the institution, and separate categories for associate/affiliate, corporate, student and honorary members.
Most FSAs function with an elected executive body and/or a board of directors comprising, at a minimum, a president, vice-president, treasurer and secretary and, in the case of regional associations, representatives of each member country or organisation. The majority of boards are staffed by volunteers, and most FSAs operate without paid staff, or with just one or two staff (sometimes seconded from member organisations).
How are FSAs in the security sector funded?
Security sector FSAs utilise a wide range of funding arrangements. Some are supported by their ‘parent’ organisation. For example, the Bahamian Association of Women Police is partially funded by the Royal Bahamas Police Force. Most FSAs exact annual fees from their members, which may be as little as US$16 for Networking Women in the Fire Service UK to US$437 for the International Bar Association Women Lawyers Interest Group. Some FSAs, in particular international FSAs, supplement their income by sponsorship, advertising in their publications and revenue generated from conferences, educational initiatives and merchandise sales. Several FSAs receive funding from government and private industry, local and national non-government organisations, community organisations, private
foundations or development organisations. A number of FSAs are financially incorporated as non-profit entities or affiliated with foundations to permit acceptance of (in some countries tax- exempt) donations.
What activities do FSAs in the security sector undertake?
The majority of FSAs in the security sector have clear statements of their mandate and purpose, which generally include providing services to members and improving services for the institution, the sector or the community.
Services to members typically include:
• support for members’ needs, including moral support in cases of discrimination;
• networking and relationship building;
• communication and information sharing through conferences, web forums and social media;
• recognising member achievements through awards and scholarships;
• offering members professional development opportunities, staff exchanges, coaching and mentoring.
In some regions, such as West Africa, the role of FSAs in the police and armed forces is more social and welfare-related. FSAs provide financial and in-kind support for members facing illness or the death of a family member, or celebrating childbirth, marriage or retirement.
The improvement of services for the institution, the sector or the community might include:
• promoting women’s integration into the institution and their advancement to leadership;
• promoting gender mainstreaming within the organisation, for example through establishment of gender units, development and distribution of educational and self-help
materials, and training workshops on gender equality;
• enhancing the institution’s relationships with the communities it serves, including by providing services and support to communities through cooperation with civil society organisations and schools;
• conducting and promoting research, and sharing best practices with other institutions;
• fundraising and advocacy for good causes;
• influencing policy by working directly with government and policy-makers.
Box 3: Adapting uniforms to female needs - an example of an FSA service
FSAs’ support services reflect the needs and the creativity of their members. When some members of Los Angeles Women Police and Associates expressed concern about the high cost of maternity uniforms, the association developed and implemented a plan to purchase a number of these uniforms in various sizes and loan them to members who needed them. The only cost to members is to clean the uniforms before they are returned to the association. Member response to the initiative has been extremely positive.
What impact do FSAs in the security sector have?
Through their internal and external activities, FSAs support and empower women working in the security sector. By fighting for fairer working conditions for women in male-dominated environments, FSAs improve opportunities for female professionals in the security sector to perform and achieve in line with their individual competencies and needs.
FSAs have impacted a variety of policies and practices of security sector institutions, ranging from recruitment to maternity leave, flexible work hours, uniform changes and national policies related to women’s rights. These changes were in some cases the result of FSAs’
involvement in formal policy-making processes, directly influencing legislative change; in
other cases, associations were able to provide input, influence policy development and improve service delivery through advocacy, the preparation of position papers and lawsuits.
Some FSAs also increase awareness of justice and human rights, improve access to justice and increase community involvement in public safety and security through the provision of direct services to the community. Such activities can have long-term beneficial effects not just for female staff but also male staff, and for the organisations, institutions and communities they serve.
Moreover, through national, regional and international cooperation, FSAs share knowledge and experiences across countries and organisations.
What are key challenges for FSAs in the security sector?
Some FSAs are strong, well organised and well funded. However, the sustainability of many FSAs is challenged by their lack of experience in strategic and financial planning, organisational development and fundraising. FSAs may struggle to establish their profile within their own institution or sector and their contacts outside it. FSAs that do not look beyond their institution or sector to engage with civil society organisations (and in some contexts international organisations) miss opportunities for advocacy support, cooperation and capacity building.
In some countries there are formal restrictions on union-type activities by military personnel that prevent the formation of staff associations. More common external challenges for FSAs include lack of ‘political will’ to create an association and lack of senior-level support within their institution, alongside pro-male traditions and cultural barriers that obstruct the participation and advancement of women. Responding to this challenge, security sector FSAs have increasingly shifted from being social, ‘sorority-type’ organisations to being more strategically focused and dedicated to influencing institutional policy and practice, thus assuming a more serious and weighty position within the institution and in public debate.
Box 4: International commitments regarding women in the security sector FSAs in the security sector can be important partners for government in meeting international gender equality commitments.
• The Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) of 1979 requires states to ensure that women and men have the same employment opportunities, promotion and job security, including in relation to all forms of public office and public functions. In ratifying CEDAW, states thus commit to providing women and men with equal opportunities in the security sector. More specifically, in the Beijing Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, states committed to ensure that women have the same right as men to be judges, advocates or other officers of the court, as well as police officers and prison and detention officers.
• UN Security Council Resolution 1325, adopted in 2000, calls for the participation of women and the inclusion of gender perspectives in a wide range of security-related areas, including peace negotiations, humanitarian planning, peacekeeping operations and post-conflict peacebuilding. Resolution 1325 stresses the importance of women’s ‘equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security’, and urges increased representation of women at decision-making levels in institutions concerned with conflict management and prevention. The resolution also urged an expanded role for women as military observers and civilian police, among other things, in UN operations.
Subsequent Security Council Resolutions 1820, 1888 and 1960 encourage deployment of greater numbers of female military and police personnel in UN peacekeeping operations. In September 2010 the Security Council adopted a set of indicators as a common basis for reporting on the implementation of Resolution 1325 that include the level of women’s participation in the justice and security sectors.
• The UN General Assembly Resolution on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Measures to Eliminate Violence against Women of 1998 urges states to cooperate with non-governmental organisations and relevant professional associations to provide gender-sensitivity training for security sector personnel involved in the criminal justice system.
A number of regional bodies, including the African Union, the Council of Europe and the Economic Community of West African States, have also highlighted the importance of promoting and supporting women in the security sector. See DCAF’s compilation of International and Regional Laws and Instruments related to Security Sector Reform and Gender for details.
What makes an FSA strong?
An FSA ensures its sustainability by providing value to its members, its organisation, its institution and the community it serves, as well as having access to funding and institutional support. Strong leaders and champions are needed to promote, support and, where appropriate, nurture the development of the association. A committed membership – one that is clear on both the purpose of the organisation and the role of members in contributing to the association’s goals and objectives – is important.
Security sector FSAs can learn from each other.
Good practices include:
• regularly assessing members’ needs;
• having a clear statement of purpose and priorities;
• targeted strategic and financial planning;
• developing a strong, transparent and inclusive internal governance framework adapted to local constraints and mandates, including clear internal accountability mechanisms;
• ensuring that the association’s governance structures are representative of the diversity of its constituency as regards ethnicity, religion, language, geographic origin, institutional affiliation, rank and function, etc.;
• engaging and collaborating with a broad range of stakeholders, including governments, security sector institutions, civil society organisations, women’s groups, the media, international organisations, donors and the private sector;
• facilitating networking to broaden outreach and promote cross-pollination of ideas between members and associations from different security sector institutions and countries;
• developing and implementing data collection and monitoring and evaluation systems to obtain baseline data, monitor progress and analyse impacts;
Box 5: Assessing needs
The Southeast Europe Women Police Officers Network (WPON) was established in 2010. In preparation, the Southeast Europe Police Chiefs Association, with the support of international organisations, worked collaboratively with ministries of interior and police services to survey 3,800 male and female police employees in Southeast Europe to obtain an overview of the position of women in the police services. Recommendations arising from this research inform WPON’s focus and activities. In its early stages, WPON has been financially supported by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Norway, the UN Development Programme and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, and has received guidance and support from the IAWP.
• developing mechanisms to identify and share lessons learned and best practices.
How can local, national and
international actors support FSAs?
Local, national and international actors can contribute to the development and enhancement of FSAs in the security sector, thereby supporting gender mainstreaming, promoting the equal participation of women in the security sector and, by extension, improving the communities which FSAs serve. These contributions include:
• building and strengthening alliances with FSAs;
• earmarking funding and grants for FSAs’
projects;
• assisting FSAs’ organisational and technical capacity building;
• developing FSAs’ ability to mobilise resources and develop partnerships with government ministries, civil society organisations and international organisations;
• including FSAs in policy-making and facilitating their access to high-level decision- makers through regular consultations;
• encouraging dialogue between different FSAs.
Further information
Inventory of Female Staff Associations Montgomery, 2011
http://dcaf.ch/Publications/Inventory-of-Female- Staff-Associations-Reviewed-for-the-Occasional- Paper-Female-Staff-Associations-in-the-Security- Sector-Agents-of-Change
Female Staff Associations in the Security Sector:
Agents of Change?
Montgomery, 2011
http://dcaf.ch/Publications/Female-Staff- Associations-in-the-Security-Sector-Agents-of- Change
Gender and SSR Toolkit Annex: International and Regional Laws and Instruments related to Security Sector Reform and Gender
http://dcaf.ch/Publications/International-and- Regional-Laws-and-Instruments-related-to- Security-Sector-Reform-and-Gender
Some FSAs on the web
Association of Women Executives in Corrections www.awec.us
International Association of Women in Fire and Emergency Services
www.i-women.org
International Association of Women Judges www.iawj.org
International Association of Women Police www.iawp.org
International Federation of Women Lawyers www.fidafederation.org
Women in Defence and Security www.wids.ca
Acknowledgements
This backgrounder has been developed by Megan Bastick and Kitt Nielsen, based on:
Montgomery, R. Female Staff Associations in the Security Sector: Agents of Change? (Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2011).
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T he DCAF B ACkgrounDers s eries
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DCAF Backgrounders provide concise introductions to contemporary issues in security sector governance and security sector reform.
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The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) promotes good governance and reform of the security sector. The Centre conducts research on good practices, encourages the development of appropriate norms at the national and international levels, makes policy recommendations and provides in-country advice and assistance programmes. DCAF’s partners include governments, parliaments, civil society, international organisations and the range of security sector actors such as police, judiciary, intelligence agencies, border security services and the military.
DCAF Backgrounder Series
• Child Soldiers
• Contemporary Challenges for the Intelligence Community
• Defence Attachés
• Defence Reform
• Democratic Control of Armed Forces
• Female Staff Associations in the Security Sector
• Gender and Security Sector Reform
• Intelligence Services
• Military Justice
• Military Ombudsmen
• Multiethnic Armed Forces
• National Security Councils
• National Security Policy
• Parliamentary Committees on Defence and Security
• Parliamentary Oversight of Intelligence Services
• Parliament’s Role in Defence Budgeting
• Parliament’s Role in Defence Procurement
• Police Reform
• Private Military Companies
• Security Sector Reform and Human Rights
• Security Sector Governance and Reform
• Security Sector Reform and Intergovernmental Organisations
• Security Sector Reform in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding
• Sending Troops Abroad
• States of Emergency
• Trafficking in Human Beings
• Vetting and the Security Sector
